Share Of Exports Research Articles

Status and prospects of beef and veal production in Ukraine in the context of international economic integration

Beef production is driven by the need to ensure the country’s food security, meet the processing industry’s demand for raw materials, and increase state budget revenues from exports. The purpose of this study was to highlight the status and trends of production in the world and Ukraine, to identify issues and find areas of development considering international economic integration. The methods employed were analysis, synthesis, generalisation, specification, mathematical, and graphical. The study identified the upward trend in global beef and veal production, the main producing countries and the predominant stability of their share in global volumes over the decades. It was found that higher beef production does not always allow for higher per capita volumes (e.g., in China and India). Ukraine’s production and its share in global volumes are declining, although production exceeds consumption. It was found that the share of agricultural enterprises in the structure of economic entities is decreasing, and there is a direct dependence between their number and production volumes, which prevails in the Forest-Steppe zone. The largest producing regions (Kyiv, Vinnytsia, Kharkiv, Lviv) were highlighted, where priority development in the post-war period is expected. The study found the principal reasons for the decline in production, including a decrease in livestock numbers, negative profitability, and rising average consumer prices. Based on the SWOT analysis results, development prospects were identified and relevant proposals were developed. The reasons for the decrease in the number of cattle and beef were proposed to be distinguished as general, and those related to enterprises and household farms; their interdependence was emphasised. The study stressed the need for state support for producers by providing food aid to the population free of charge and by purchasing products at lower prices depending on their financial level. International economic integration was singled out as one of the key factors of increasing beef production. The study emphasised the need to consider the consumer preferences of the population of countries with which regional trade agreements have been concluded, specifically regarding the production of kosher and halal products. The findings of this study and the proposals provided can be used to develop government measures to increase beef production and increase its share in world exports

КЛИМАТИЧЕСКАЯ ПОЛИТИКА СТРАН БРИКС. ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ СОТРУДНИЧЕСТВА В УСЛОВИЯХ ФРАГМЕНТАЦИИ ГЛОБАЛЬНОГО КЛИМАТИЧЕСКОГО РЕГУЛИРОВАНИЯ

Brazil has a strong potential to achieve national climate goals and can also be an important decarbonization partner for other countries, especially in the supply of green hydrogen and critical raw materials for the production of new climate-neutral technologies. This article highlights the main tools and policies for Brazil's decarbonization and identifies potential areas in which the country can not only achieve its nationally determined contributions (NDCs), but also ensure innovative green economic growth. Low carbon intensity energy sources can ensure a low carbon footprint for industrial products, which can make goods more attractive in the face of increasing requirements and the introduction of measures such as the European Union’s (EU) carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM). Extensive deployment of renewable energy creates opportunities for the country to produce sustainable hydrogen, which will be in demand both domestically and globally. The main challenge for Brazil's decarbonization is its extensive agriculture, as well as widespread deforestation, the rate of which increased under the J. Bolsonaro administration. For agricultural products, which make up a large share of exports, avoided deforestation requirements like those adopted in the EU would be a real barrier and could close European and other markets. The mining and processing of critical raw materials could be a potential breakthrough for the country's economic growth due to the widespread decarbonization of the global economy. The low carbon intensity of the country's industry, including mining, due to renewable energy sources appears to be a significant advantage. Lula's return has given the international community hope that, at least in forestry and agriculture, significant efforts can be expected from Brazil, including international support, financing, and auditing

The Effects of The Covid-19 Pandemic On The Return On Equity Of Foreign Trade Capital Companies

The COVID-19 pandemic has shown its negative effects in all areas from health to economy, education to transportation, agriculture to tourism. While previous global crises were generally caused by financial-based problems, the COVID-19 pandemic is a health-based crisis and makes its negative economic effects felt more severe than financial crises. Especially, developing countries develop policies to increase their export revenues to overcome economic crises. In this way, direct contribution is made to macroeconomic indicators such as production increase, easing exchange rate pressure, increase in employment and growth rates. In this sense, Foreign Trade Capital Companies in Türkiye have great importance both in terms of their share in total industry and total exports. In the literature review, it has been observed that there are not many studies on these special-status companies, which are of great importance to the Turkish economy. In this study, unlike other studies, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the financial performance of Foreign Trade Capital Companies were analysed in terms of return on equity. The data for the period between 2009Q1-2022Q2 were analysed by the panel data analysis method. As a result of the analysis, a significant and positive relationship was found between the COVID-19 pandemic and return on equity.

Export Market Size Matters: The Effect of the Market Size of Export Destinations on Manufacturing Growth

Literature contends that the manufacturing sector is crucial for economic development, and it is conventional wisdom that exports drive manufacturing growth. However, it has yet to be established empirically whether the market size of export destinations is an essential factor in explaining diverging regional and sectoral manufacturing growth patterns. This article argues that accessing a few large external markets reduces entry costs, increases expectations of economies of scale, and fosters capital formation. To test this hypothesis, we construct a novel Relative Export Market Size (REMS) index that measures whether the share of sectoral exports destined to large economies in one region is higher than in other regions. Using a PVAR model with fixed effects, we verify the impact of the REMS index on value added, employment, and capital accumulation of 129 manufacturing sectors in 23 regions in Colombia from 1992 to 2017. The obtained results show that exporting to larger markets positively impacts employment, capital formation, and value added per capita of manufacturing sectors at a regional level. This finding indicates that exporting to the world’s largest market helps develop competitive manufacturing sectors.

АНАЛІЗ МІЖНАРОДНОЇ КОНКУРЕНТОСПРОМОЖНОСТІ АПК УКРАЇНИ ТА КРАЇН СВІТУ В УМОВАХ ІНДУСТРІЇ 4.0

The article is devoted to the international competitiveness of the agro-industrial complex of Ukraine and the countries of the world that are its largest competitors: Brazil, China, India, Turkey and the United States. The purpose of the article is to determine the advantages and problems of international competitiveness of the domestic agro-industrial complex in comparison with the largest competing countries in the context of technological development and implementation of Industry 4.0. The results obtained can be used in the creation of a a concept for improving the international competitiveness of Ukraine's agro-industrial complex. To achieve this goal, the research was conducted using the following methods: comparative analysis, economic and statistical methods, namely, the method of processing a dynamic series to identify a trend, graphical and tabular methods to visualize the observed data and research results. The analysis of time series for 2003-2022 showed that among the countries studied, Ukraine has the largest share of agricultural exports in GDP by a significant margin. The assessment of the dynamics of the foreign trade balance showed that Brazil, Ukraine and India are significant players as net exporters of agricultural products on the international market, while countries such as the United States and China are becoming increasingly dependent on agricultural imports, acting as net importers. The analysis of the structure of agricultural exports showed that Brazil, China, and India have the highest diversification of agricultural exports. As for the value of exports, Brazil and the United States are in the lead. It is established that in terms of the relative indicator, namely the share of exports of agro-industrial goods, Brazil, India and Ukraine prevail. The author notes a significant potential for increasing the international competitiveness of domestic agricultural products, strengthening Ukraine's position in the global agricultural segment, which can serve as an indicator of the efficiency and competitiveness of the Ukrainian agro-industrial complex.

Investigating the effect of an underdeveloped financial sector on non-oil export in Nigeria

Several policies have been implemented in Nigeria to shift the export trade from oil to non-oil goods; yet the share of non-oil export in total exports remains very small compared to oil export, which may be due to the low level of financial sector development in the country. Unlike previous studies on Nigeria that focused exclusively on financial sector development and aggregate export (combined exports of oil and non-oil goods), this study concentrates on financial sector development and non-oil export using an autoregressive distributed lag technique, the dynamic ordinary least squares technique, and the non-linear autoregressive distributed lag technique over the period 1986-2020. The empirical results showed that the relationship between financial sector development and non-oil export is linear. Results also showed that, in the short term, the country?s level of financial sector development worsens exports of non-oil products. However, in the long term, there is no connection between non-oil export and financial sector development, which challenges the theoretical view that trade and financial sector development are linked at any given time period. The study recommends that the government and policymakers in Nigeria should make sure that the financial sector is sufficiently developed, otherwise the goal to diversify the export base may not be achieved.

Деятельность преференциального режима ТОР на территории Хабаровского края

The economic results of the territories of advanced development (TAD) of the Khabarovsk Territory are the subject of the article. Residents of the territories carry out economic activities reflected in four main aspects: investment, export, fiscal and formation of the labor market. Based on the analysis of specific indicators the author concluded that the impact of investments in fixed assets in regional processes of the TAD is increasing. The insignificant influence of the TAD on the functioning of the labor market has been established due to the demographic problems of the Khabarovsk Territory (a decrease in the population and an increase in migration outflow), as well as incomplete fulfillment by residents of the TAD of planned indicators for job creation. It was noted that stimulation by regional authorities of the TAD’s residents export activities, as well as application of customs procedures of the free customs zone, led to positive results – an increase in the share of net exports of the TAD in regional indicators. The dynamics of the share of payments by residents of the TAD in the revenues of the consolidated budget of the Khabarovsk Territory is studied. It is determined that an insignificant share of payments to the regional budget is explained by the fact that the activities of the TAD have not reached full capacity (comparing planned and actual achieved indicators – concluded agreements, investments, and jobs created). Based on the generalization of the economic results, it is concluded that the presence of TAD in the economy of the Khabarovsk Territory is growing.

ՀՀ ՏՀՏ ոլորտի արտահանման հաղթարշավը/ EXPORT TRIUMPH OF ARMENIA'S ICT SECTOR

The paper analyzes the rate of growth of the ICT sector in the Republic of Armenia, its structure and share in total exports, both in terms of goods and services. The export growth of ICT services during the studied period exceeded the growth rate of the total export of the RA. The lion's share of ICT sector exports belongs to services, and among them, computer services. Moreover, in the last 10 years, there has been a structural shift in the export of ICT services, the share of telecommunications has decreased from around one-third to one percent in 2022, while the share of computer services has increased even further.

DEVELOPMENT OF PROGRESSIVE TECHNOLOGIES ON THE MARKET OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF UKRAINE

The article considers the study of the theoretical foundations, implementation and prospects of innovative technologies in the market of agricultural products in Ukraine. The intensity of the development of digital trade in terms of volume and scale due to the introduction of artificial intelligence, which has the potential for the digital transformation of trade by significantly reducing geographical barriers, has been established. It is certain that a significant impetus to the development of innovations in trade in Ukraine, as well as in other countries of the world, was given by crisis events, namely, the pandemic, then military actions. In crisis conditions, digital technologies in trade have a significant advantage over traditional ones, because they allow the consumer to order goods without putting their life at risk. We studied the sector of domestic trade in agricultural products for the use of advanced technologies. The purpose of the work was to highlight the trends in the development of advanced technologies in the trade of agricultural products in Ukraine, to determine the influence of factors that shape the market and consumer trends on the innovative development of trading platforms, innovative challenges in the field of trade in agricultural products. Innovations in the trade of economically developed countries of the world and Ukraine are considered, in particular, the most developed and promising ones are highlighted. The main aspects of the state and trends of trade development in Ukraine are characterized. The analysis of statistical information and research has established the dominance of large business enterprises, although the trend of positive innovative movement of medium-sized businesses can be traced. It has been determined that in recent years, import operations significantly outweigh export operations, this is especially noticeable from the analysis of the results of 2022. The comparative analysis of indicators of the activity of trading enterprises in Ukraine for 2020-2023 using the example of the index of the physical turnover of retail trade proved its fluctuations depending on the crisis phenomena in the country. In particular, the export of goods decreased by 26.1%, and the import increased by 11.2%, which resulted in a negative balance. The largest share of trade during the studied periods was with EU countries, in 2023 it increased to 56%, while the share of exports decreased by 10%. Since the beginning of active hostilities, the country’s economic activity shows signs of stabilization, but this trend will depend on foreign economic relations with partner countries. It has been proven that the leading trend in the development of progressive technologies in the trade of agricultural products in Ukraine is the increase in the confidence of buyers in purchasing via the Internet. Furthermore, a critical element of digital commerce is an effective cybersecurity management plan that balances technology, geopolitical relations, government capacity; supports market reputation, and public-private cooperation.

АГРОПРОДОВОЛЬСТВЕННЫЙ ЭКСПОРТ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ: ВЫЯВЛЕНИЕ ТЕНДЕНЦИИ РАЗВИТИЯ И РЕАЛИЗАЦИЯ ПОТЕНЦИАЛА

Agriculture is one of the priority areas for the development of the Russian economy, which accounts for about 4% of Russian GDP. Today, in a difficult geopolitical situation, the countries of the world (the majority) consider export activities as a key basis for the stability of the economy, support its development with the developed sets of measures. The purpose of the study was to identify current trends in the development of agro-food exports of the Russian Federation. Methods. The methods of system analysis, synthesis, generalization, and interpretation of the results were used in the work. In the course of the research, the systematization of statistical data, scientific publications of scientists on the topic of the presented work was carried out. Results. The current trend in the development of agro-food exports of the Russian Federation has been determined. Discussion. The goal was achieved by performing the following tasks: analysis of the share of exports of food products and raw materials for their production in the commodity structure of exports; assessment of the trend in the share of imports of food products and raw materials for their production from non-CIS countries in 2020-2022; determination of the vector of orientation of the benchmark of financial support for the promotion of Russian agro-food products. Conclusion. The study revealed a positive trend in the development of agri-food exports in the Russian Federation, characterized by a tendency to decrease the share of imports of food products and raw materials for their production from non-CIS countries in 2020-2022. It is stated that the benchmark of financial support for the promotion of Russian agri-food products should have a vector for the environmental friendliness of food products according to criteria in the leading importing countries of Russian agricultural products (China, Turkey).

ANALYSIS OF GROWTH AND CROPPING PATTERN CHANGES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: CRITICAL ACCOUNT ON THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

Agriculture, land use and food security are at the main subject of the debates in the 2015 development goals and targets. However, hunger and food insecurity remain major development priorities in the recent decades. Nevertheless, the existing agriculture, changes in land use patterns and food systems are critical to sustaining poor people’s life and livelihoods. The 2015 Sustainable Development goals and agendas need to support for more productive, environmentally sustainable and resilient while safeguarding and augmenting life and livelihood of the mass through agricultural sustainability. With this background, the present research paper attempted to analyze, the trend of the agricultural sector in terms of growth rates of area production, quantity production, yield of selected crops and its share to national income towards achieving food security towards zero hunger over the last seven decades since its Independence in India and examine the relative contribution of area yield, output changes in relation to other related variable like rainfall, fertilizers and land use pattern in India. The study findings indicate a notable trend in the agricultural sector: the proportion of agricultural imports within the realm of agricultural commodities saw a steady rise, climbing from 2.79 percent to 5.07 percent spanning the years from 1990-91 to 2021-22. Conversely, the proportion of agricultural commodity exports relative to the overall national export share experienced a gradual decline, diminishing from 18.47 percent to 11.94 percent over the same period. Moreover, data reveals significant growth in key agricultural metrics. The total cultivated area for food grain production expanded substantially, surging from 97.32 million hectares in 1950-51 to 129.34 million hectares by 2020-21. Concurrently, the quantity of food grain produced exhibited remarkable

Agricultural policy reforms in Uzbekistan to increase the export share

This article underscores the persistent and sustained initiatives undertaken by the government of the Republic of Uzbekistan to augment the export of agricultural products. Positioned as the primary architects of policies, state organizations play an exclusive role in formulating strategies that not only analyze global trends but also consider market dynamics. This comprehensive approach is geared toward adapting and implementing both new and existing policy reforms in the agricultural market and production sector. The emphasis on continuous analysis of market dynamics reflects a commitment to staying abreast of changes in global demand, supply, and trade patterns. This ongoing assessment enables timely adjustments to policies, ensuring they remain responsive to the evolving landscape of the international agricultural market. The article suggests that the Republic of Uzbekistan recognizes the pivotal role of the agricultural sector in its economic growth and is actively working through its state organizations to position itself strategically in the global market. By adopting adaptive policies and reforms, the competitiveness of its agricultural products and foster sustained growth in agricultural exports.

Antidumping Duty and Export Deflection to APEC Economies

This study uses detailed product-level data to examine the trade deflection of Korean exports as a result of antidumping (AD) duty impositions. Given that APEC economies account for a large share of Korean exports and that AD duties are imposed on Korean exports, especially by the U.S. and China, this study focuses on Korean export deflection to APEC economies following AD duty impositions from the U.S. and China. We find robust evidence of Korean export deflection within APEC as a result of the imposition of AD duties by the U.S. and China. Moreover, intra-APEC trade deflection is associated with the type of products involved in the AD duty orders. U.S. AD duties have an impact on the export deflection of intermediate products, while Chinese AD duties have an impact on final products, towards APEC economies.

Advanced Technology Investment, Transfer, Export and Import: Determinants or Predictors of Economic Growth and Inflation Fluctuations?

Investments, scientific patents, export and import of high-tech goods and services stimulate the country’s technological development, contribute to economic growth, job creation, the formation of a qualified workforce, and the maintenance of social living standards of the population. At the same time, the ecosystem supporting technological innovation is largely dependent on macroeconomic stability in the country, inflationary fluctuations, etc. Based on this, the article examines systemic interrelationships between the factors of technological development (export and import of computer, information, telecommunications and other high-tech goods and services, investments in advanced research and technologies, volumes of transfer of rights to new technological developments, as well as general the level of coverage of the population by information technologies and innovativeness of the country) and macroeconomic development (gross domestic and national product, inflation rate). The research was carried out using the method of Principal component analysis, canonical analysis, panel regression modeling on the data of 11 countries with developed economies for 2011 and 2021 (World Bank and WIPO statistical databases). From 14 indicators of technological development, the 8 most relevant ones were selected using the method of Principal component analysis; by means of canonical analysis, it was found that 32.503% (in 2011) and 37.557% (in 2021) of their variation is due to changes in the studied macroeconomic indicators. On the other hand, the change in macroeconomic indicators by 46.497% (in 2011) and 38.739% (in 2021) is caused by the variation of indicators of investment, transfer, export and import of advanced technologies. Thus, macroeconomic dynamics depend much more on technological development, and not vice versa. Based on the conducted panel regression modeling, a statistically significant dependence of the inflation index on the share of the population that is Internet users and the country’s place in the Global Innovation Index was revealed. GDP per capita was found to be dependent on the share of exports of high-tech goods and services, the share of exports of goods in the field of information and communication technologies, the share of the population that are Internet users, the country’s place in the Global Innovation Index. State investments in research and technological development turned out to be dependent on the inflation index, the share of imports of computer, information and other services, the share of exports of goods in the field of information and communication technologies, the share of the population that are Internet users, and the country’s place in the Global Innovation Index.

Export competitiveness and direction of trade of almonds from Afghanistan

The study aims to reveal the competitiveness and direction of trade of almonds from Afghanistan. The data was analysed for Nominal Protection Coefficient, Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Markov chain analysis to understand the transition probability of almonds between different countries in the context of quantity. The secondary data for almonds was analyzed for the period of 2006-07 to 2020-21. The results indicated that the Afghanistan almonds were very responsive to the share of exports of the country. During the period considered under the study, lower nominal protection coefficient value for UAE was 0.76 followed by 0.79 and 0.82 India and Turkey respectively, which were less than one for the year 2022-23, indicating that UAE, India and Turkey had high export competitiveness than others. The range of RCA indices for Afghanistan was 43.95 to 670.71 followed by USA and Spain 6.83 to 8.43 and 4.64 to 7.86 respectively and the average value of RCA in the global market was highest for Afghanistan 178.61 followed by USA, Spain and Australia which were 7.81, 5.71 and 3.51 respectively. In case of transitional probability matrix for almonds exported quantity from Afghanistan during study period, Pakistan and India retained 96.93 and 31.00 per cent of their original share respectively. Where as other countries retained 32.21 per cent of their original share. Turkey lost 100.00 per cent of its share to others, UAE lost to India, Germany and Turkey in the proportion of 60.28, 23.02 and 16.70 per cent respectively, similarly Germany lost 70.21 per cent to India and 29.79 per cent to others, Iran and Iraq lost 100.00 and 83.67 per cent of their share to Pakistan and Turkey respectively, other countries lost 65.97 per cent of their share to India. The results revealed that Afghan almonds had more competitive advantages compared to others countries in global markets.

Assessment of the regional potential of technological sovereignty of the Russian Federation

Aim. To identify the regions with a high potential for ensuring technological sovereignty of the Russian Federation (RF).Objectives. To perform a structural analysis of non-resource exports and imports of the RF regions; to propose a methodological approach to the development of typology of regions according to the criterion “the level of import dependence of production”; to identify the regional nuclei of technological sovereignty of the Russian Federation.Methods. Two-stage structural analysis of statistical data on regional exports and imports with the allocation of the share of goods with low and high level of processing, as well as with the definition of the purpose of products: production or for consumption by the population. The choice of the research period is conditioned by the absence in 2019 of the influence of the factor of the decline in global production during the COVID-19 pandemic in the following years, as well as the absence of the pressure exerted by sanctions restrictions.Results. 12 types of Russian regions were defined according to the criterion “high, medium and low levels of technological import dependence of the industrial complex”. The second level of the regional typologization depth is determined by the ratio of such indicators as the share of industrial technological export of the region in the country’s export, the share of industrial technological export of the region in the country’s technological export, the share of industrial technological import of the region in the country’s import, the share of industrial technological import of the region in the country’s technological import. Structural analysis allowed us to identify the regions - the nuclei of technological sovereignty of the country.Conclusions. First of all, it is necessary to study the experience of economic activity of seven regions that have exports of technological products at a high level with a low level of technological import dependence of industry. Among these regions are the Irkutsk, Arkhangelsk, Penza oblasts, the Republic of Bashkortostan, Altai Krai, the Republic of Mari El, and the Komi Republic. Two leading regions of the listed subjects of the Russian Federation deserve special attention: the Irkutsk Oblast and the Republic of Bashkortostan. It is important to highlight the most successful cases of their sectoral development to be used in other territories in order to ensure national technological sovereignty.

The Long Shadows of Brexit: Implications for African Countries

Abstract The exit of the United Kingdom from the European Union (EU) single market and customs union has adversely affected trade prospects of many developing economies that depended on the UK market for their exports. This paper investigates the impact of Brexit on African countries' exports to the UK. The comparison is based upon trade between the set of African countries which export most to the UK and the EU. It provides a quantitative assessment of the trade effect through the use of descriptive analysis and empirical estimations by employing the difference-in-difference (DID) estimation approach. The descriptive analysis finds that the share of African exports sent to the UK has declined since the Brexit announcement in 2016. The empirical estimations using the DID approach also demonstrate a drop of 20–30% in African countries exports to the UK relative to the EU-27 in this period. These results hold to a battery of robustness checks, including the use of an alternative estimation approach, varying sample size, and the use of alternative counterfactuals. We further show that the trade flows started to drop immediately after the announcement of the Brexit referendum in 2015 but the main drop came after the Brexit referendum results became evident. These findings imply the need for policy intervention and support for African countries to revitalize their trade flows and alleviate the unintended effects of this trade shock.

Dinámica en la conformación y adopción de las Organizaciones Cafetaleras en el Perú

One of the forms of work in the agricultural sector at the Latin American level is the formation of organizations such as cooperatives. The Peruvian coffee sector has not been alien to this model, which after 50 years seems to have found an organizational model through the formation and strengthening of Associations or Cooperatives of Multiple Services, increasing their quality. The objective was to determine the adoption curve of the new organizational model of coffee organizations in the Peruvian coffee sector during the last 20 years and the consequences of adopting the new organizational model (OC) in the Peruvian coffee sector. Were used reports of coffee exporting OCs, analysis of information on coffee exports, consequences of capital analysis. Of the exporting POs in 2021, in the group of those formed before 2000, which are only 18, there were 112 in 2021 with the largest increases in the years 2000-2008 and 2012-2019, between consequences found there are better prices of the OCs per quintal exported, increase in certified coffees, and recomposition of the exporters, with a 37% share of exports for the OCs in the year 2021.

What Did Turkey Do in terms of Export Competitiveness After 2000?

Competitiveness relates to an economy's ability to produce products efficiently and effectively, enabling it to compete in domestic and global markets. It encompasses factors such as productivity, innovation, quality, cost-efficiency, and market access. Competitive economies are more likely to attract investment, create jobs, and achieve higher levels of economic development. Especially competitiveness rankings provide opportunity of benchmarking, effective policy guidance, attractive investment, global comparison and eveluation. In this respect, this study has been conducted to examine Turkey's export structure in the period 2001-2021 within the framework of Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System and to compare its competitiveness with the Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage Index (RSCA). The data used to calculate the RSCA values are taken from TradeMap, the database of the International Trade Centre (ITC). The comparison was made with Turkey's highest trading partners, the countries with the largest share in Turkey's export. While Turkey had RSCA in 37 products in 2001, it increased to 45 products in 2021. Similar to Podoba et al. (2021), product groups are categorised according to observable trends in RSCA values. In 2001, 5 products with RSCA decreased, and in 2021, 12 products with comparative advantage replaced them

Trends and Exports of Garlic in India

Aims: The present study entitled “Trends and exports of garlic in India” was undertaken to know trend in area, production, productivity, export quantity, domestic and international prices and competitiveness of Indian garlic export in international markets.
 Study Design: Secondary data regarding area, production, productivity, export quantity, export value, domestic and international prices of garlic in India was collected from 1990-91 to 2019-20, which includes 30 years data. The period has been divided in to three periods i.e., period I (1990-91 to 2004-05), period II (2005-06 to 2019-20) and overall period (1990-91 to 2019-20).
 Place and Duration of Study: The information of the present study was obtained from secondary data. Data was pertained from the year 1990-91 to 2019-20.
 Methodology: Different functions were tried to study trend in area, production, productivity, export, domestic and international prices of garlic and the best fit was used to analyse the trend. The export competitiveness of garlic was measured by Nominal Protection Coefficient.
 Results: Area, production, productivity, export quantity, export value of garlic showed cubic trend indicating that the movement of all the series was uniform throughout India whereas unit value of export, domestic and international prices of garlic showed compound trend. The export competitiveness of garlic was measured by Nominal Protection Coefficient which concluded values for period I was 1.70, for period II was 1.60 and for overall period was 1.65 indicating non-competitiveness of Indian garlic in all the periods in international markets.
 Conclusion: The study was mostly based only on a secondary data collected from various published sources. Limitations inherent in the secondary data are inevitable. It is important to increase export share of garlic by taking appropriate efforts. Market support by Government is necessary to support the farmers from considerable fluctuation in price and motivating them to produce a quality garlic.