Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index Research Articles

Community structure and regeneration capacity of mangrove forest

Mangrove forests play a vital role in the environment. They provide a number of ecosystem services for supporting marine biodiversity, humans, and other living organisms inhabiting the area. This study aimed to determine the community structure and regeneration capacity of mangrove forests in Lebak, Sultan Kudarat, Philippines. Community structure was determined through relative density, relative frequency, relative dominance, and importance value. Using the center point circular plot method, 13 plots with 40 m diameter were established in two sampling sites: natural stand and reforested. Shannon-Weiner diversity and evenness indexes were used to determine species diversity and distribution, respectively. This study recorded a total of 14 462 individuals within the 1256 m² sampling plots, having Rhizophoraceae as the most abundant family with seven species that cover about 71% of both mangrove ecosystems. The vegetation analysis revealed that Ceriops tagal (70.35%) and Rhizophora mucronata (96.51%) had the highest importance value in the natural stand and reforested mangrove forests, respectively. Furthermore, these two species were also accounted for having the highest regeneration contribution among all species in each site. Shannon-Weiner diversity index revealed that the natural stand was more diverse compared to the reforested mangrove forest. However, the Shannon-Weiner evenness index showed that species in the reforested mangrove forest are more evenly distributed than species in the natural stand. Natural mangrove stands in Lebak have complex community structure and have higher regeneration capacity than the reforested mangrove forest. With this, the study suggested continuing the best practices employed for mangrove conservation in the area and crafting a strategic plan for sustainable mangrove resource utilization.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) diversity and population in UPV Nature Trail, Miagao, Iloilo, Philippines

Abstract. De Asis EPT, Demetillo FMM, Paguntalan DP. 2023. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) diversity and population in UPV Nature Trail, Miagao, Iloilo, Philippines. Biodiversitas 24: 6692-6703. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) are soil microorganisms that form the most prevalent mutualistic associations with plant species. Studies revealed its global distribution in various terrestrial habitats, but available local literature remains few. This study investigated AMF diversity in the University of the Philippines Visayas (UPV) Nature Trail, Miagao, Iloilo, Philippines. AMF spores were isolated using wet sieving, decanting, and centrifugation. A total of 2815 individual spores were documented, with 114 distinct morphospecies representing 16 genera, nine families, and four orders classified. Glomus clarum, Acaulospora sp.7, and Scutellospora pellucida tallied the highest abundance across all points. Scutellospora pellucida (FOC=83.3%) recorded the highest species richness, followed by Ambispora sp. (FOC=77.78%), then Acaulospora mellea and Glomus australe (FOC=72.22%). Overall, Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H=3.6019) and Simpson diversity index (D=0.0420) revealed a very high AMF diversity in the trail, while the Pielou evenness index (J=0.7605) suggested a semi-balanced number of individuals among each morphospecies. A more abundant, even, and diverse, albeit not statistically significant, AMF community was recorded in forested areas compared to non-forested areas of the trail. Results generally suggest that the AMF community is diverse and abundant regardless of the location, ecosystem type, and faunal association.

Determination of the soil health status of wheat fields in Tekirdağ, Türkiye, based on nematode diversity

Objective: A study was conducted in wheat cultivation areas in Tekirdağ to estimate the soil health of fields using nematode biodiversity indices.
 Material and Methods: In the study, nematode taxa identified in wheat fields were subjected to community and food web analyses and several indices were calculated to determine the health status of soils in sampled areas. 
 Results and Conclusion Nematodes belonging to 41 genera were identified in wheat fields. The mean values of 10 biodiversity indices calculated in each sampled field were as follows; the Maturity index (MI): 2.26±0.28; the Maturity index MI2-5: 2.32±0.33; the Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H′): 2.03±0.24, the Evennes (J′): 0.90±0.06, the Genera Richness index (GR): 8.32±3.17, the Channel index (CI): 91±20.44; the Basal index (BI): 42.35±12.66; the Enrichment index (EI): 41.93±14.3, the Structure index (SI): 33.6±26.49 and the Plant-parasitic (PPI) index: 2.89±0.17. The nematode faunal indices indicate that 21% of surveyed wheat fields have well-developed and 79% have degraded soil profiles.

Impact of Irrigation Dams on Fish Diversity of Budhikhola in Bardiya, Lumbini Province of Nepal

This extensive study describes the current status of freshwater fish diversity in the Budhikhola which is an important branch of the Karnali River that runs through the western region of the Bardiya district covering about 30 km distance in the north-south direction. To examine the effects of irrigation dams on habitat modification and fish variety, fish were collected from the entire Budhikhola stretch, with four sampling stations established depending on habitat structure. The freshwater system of the Budhikhola harbors a diverse and ecologically complex fish community comprising 41 species from 6 orders and 13 families. The dominance of the Cyprinidae family, represented by Barilius barna, Chanda nama, Chagunius chagunio, etc., highlights its ecological significance. On the other hand, the loss of important fish species is proof that the building of irrigation dams has had significant ecological effects. Human-induced hazards such as damming and overexploitation, have adversely impacted the river environment, resulting in reduced water depth, habitat structure changes, and restricted nutrient flow. The majority of the riverbed had been observed to be silt-covered. Significant fish species loss indicates ecological instability brought on by human activity. Changes in the distribution of fish sizes and spatial differences between upstream and downstream areas highlight the complex link between habitat modifications and community functioning. The catch-per-hour seasonal tendency, which peaks in September and falls in March, is correlated with fishing patterns, environmental factors, or breeding seasons. The evenness value (0.96) and high Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H'= 3.57) show a diverse and harmonious fish community. The relevance of family-level distinctions in implementing effective conservation and management measures is highlighted by major differences among family groups (p<0.001). As the findings make clear, the long-term survival of the diversified fish ecosystem of the Budhikhola depends on addressing and reducing anthropogenic stressors. This study provides valuable insights for informed conservation efforts in the aquatic ecosystems of Nepal.

Diversity and Abundance of Edible Wild Fruit and Leaf Plants in Parts of Forest and Savanna Eco-regions, Nigeria.

Wild foods are important sources of nutrition for one out of six people worldwide and it remains an open access source of food and income, especially to vulnerable group such as the resource-poor and malnourished children. Different ecological zones in Nigeria are endowed with diverse edible fruits and leaves and hence their diversity and abundance differ. With the previous and current rate of deforestation particularly in the African continent and specifically in Nigeria, the diversity and abundance of these invaluable forests –derived foods across the forest and savanna ecozones in Nigeria are unknown. An inventory of forest-derived edible fruits and leaves was conducted using a systematic line transect in two (2) selected forest reserves in each ecological zone. Five line transects of 515 m in length, with a distance of at least 150 m between two parallel transects was used. Five sample plots of 25 m x25 m in size were laid in alternate position along each transect at 100 m interval. A total of 25 sample plots were laid in each of the selected forest reserves. In each sample plot, all edible fruits and leaves encountered were identified and their frequency recorded. The frequency of the species per ha was used to compute the relative species abundance and Shannon weiner diversity index. The species diversity across the ecological zones was compared using one-way analysis of variance. Shannon-weiner diversity index (3.49) for the rainforest edible wild fruits and leaves is significantly higher (P≤ 0.05) than in all the other ecological zones. This is followed by Guinea savanna (3.10), Derived savanna (3.02), Sudan savanna (2.91), and Sahel savanna (2.83) while the mangrove forest has the lowest diversity index (2.53). Assessing species diversity helps in understanding the resilience of forest ecosystems. This knowledge is crucial for fostering environments that can withstand and recover from adverse events. Policy makers rely on scientific studies to design regulations and conservation strategies. This research provided evidence-based insight necessary for informed decision-making to protect forest reserves

Floristic Composition and Tree Species Diversity with DBH ≤ 5 cm at Gunung Stong State Park (GSSP), Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia

A study was conducted to assess the tree species composition, diversity, and above-ground biomass at Gunung Stong State Park (GSSP), Dabong, Kelantan, Malaysia. Five plots were systematically established of each 20 m x 20 m (0.2 ha), and all trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH) of 5 cm and below were enumerated. A total of 273 individual trees were enumerated, representing 88 species belonging to 40 families and 67 genera. Lauraceae was the most represented family, consisting of 3 genera and 4 species. The Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H’) indicated a high diversity value of 3.46 and the Simpson Diversity Index (D) with 0.97. The total above-ground biomass of the trees was estimated to be 0.619 ta/ha. Notably, Vatica maingayi and Aquilaria malaccensis identified in the study area are listed as vulnerable, with decreasing population trends. The floristic composition and the presence of these threatened species underscore the ecological importance of GSSP, highlighting its potential role as a critical conservation site for maintaining biodiversity and protecting vulnerable plant species. This study provides valuable baseline data for the management and conservation of forest resources in GSSP and contributes to the broader understanding of tropical forest ecosystems in Malaysia position implies that the study area can serve as a conservation site for the threatened plant species.

Algal Diversity and its Relationship with Seasonal Variation of Water Quality in Gajedi Lake, Rupandehi District, Nepal

The current study focuses on the algal diversity of Gajedi Lake in different seasons in connection to the lake's water quality indicators. Algae and water samples were collected from eight peripheral sites of the lake in summer, rainy, and winter seasons in 2021. The water temperature, conductivity, total dissolved solids, hardness, alkalinity, phosphorus, free CO<sub>2</sub>, and dissolved oxygen were recorded as high during the summer season while water pH was high during the rainy season. Altogether 93 species of algae were reported under 52 genera, 30 families, 7 classes and 6 phyla in this study. The largest phylum was <i>Bacillariophyta </i>(44.08%) followed by <i>Chlorophyta </i>(17.20%), <i>Euglenozoa </i>(10.97%), <i>Cyanobacteria </i>(12.90%), <i>Charophyta</i> (10.75%) and <i>Miozoa </i>(1.07%). The Shannon-Weiner diversity index indicated high abundance during the summer season, with more evenly distributed algal species. More algal species were recorded in the winter season. <i>Trachelomonas, Navicula</i>, and <i>Nitzschia </i>were dominant genera during summer; <i>Anagostidinema, Desmodesmus</i>, and <i>Pinnularia</i> were dominant during rainy; and <i>Trachelomonas, Tetradesmus</i>, and <i>Gomphonema </i>were dominant during winter. The redundancy analysis ordination showed that the algal composition varied along with the seasonal changes in physico-chemical parameters. Temperature, pH, and conductivity were thus identified as significant factors influencing species richness.

Herpetofauna of forest fragments within the Agata Mining Ventures Incorporated (AMVI), Agusan del Norte, Caraga Region, Philippines

The Philippines holds an extraordinary record of amphibian and reptile diversity and endemism; however, factors like habitat loss and fragmentation that may result from activities related to resource extraction, such as mining, pose a significant threat to their conservation. This study examined the herpetofauna composition in select forest fragments within one of the important mining sites in Caraga, the Agata Mining Ventures Incorporated, between 2018 and 2021. Standardized time searches along the established two 2km transects in two sampling stations (Lawigan and Tinigabasan) were conducted to record reptiles and amphibians accounting for 880 man-hours. A total of 513 individuals representing 12 species of amphibians, and 17 species of reptiles were recorded in the area in both surveys. Of these species, 62% (n = 18 spp.) are Philippine endemic, 35% (n = 10 spp.) native, and 3% (n = 1 spp.) were invasive alien species. Overall, the Shannon-Weiner diversity index is high (H’=2.52) and varied significantly across survey periods (Mann-Whitney U test = 248.5, p=0.007). The species-area relationship analysis showed a strong positive correlation for total herpetofauna (R2 = 0.98), amphibians (R2 = 0.87), and reptiles (R2 = 0.99), and a significant correlation existed between reptiles and forest area (p = 0.05). The result suggests a strong reliance of herpetofaunal richness to forested area. Combined forest clearing and the effects of mining activities currently happening in the area might threaten these environment-sensitive taxa. Preserving these forest fragments within AMVI and allocating buffer zones is highly recommended. Periodic scientific field-based surveys and re-surveys, encompassing not only amphibians and reptiles but also various other species are recommended to monitor species distributions, population trends and impacts of on-going activities. These efforts aim to update data-driven sources supporting the mining area’s rehabilitation program, thereby contributing to societal and environmental benefits.

Assessing and understanding diversity and foraging guilds of bird community structure in Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar and Jharkhand, India

This study was conducted between June 2017 and December 2018 to assess the bird community structure, diversity, feeding guilds, and the residential status of birds in Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary (GBWS). Avian diversity and guild organization in five different habitat types were classified according to the forest type present in the landscape. The results indicated a total of 99 avifauna that belongs to 48 families, distributed in 16 orders. Among the 99 species, 77 were residents, 17 were winter visitors, four were summer visitors, and only one was a passage migrant. Based on the feeding guild evaluation, the majority were insectivorous (47%), followed by omnivorous (24%), carnivorous (14%), granivorous (8%), frugivorous (4%), insectivorous (1%), and piscivorous (1%). The scrubland, among other forest types, represented the highest diversity value for the Shannon-Weiner diversity index (3.2), evenness was recorded highest in riverine habitat (0.63), whereas utmost Simpson’s dominance (0.98) and Fisher’s index value (41) were in human settlement. These findings of our study illustrate the outstanding potential of GBWS as an important protected site for mixed bird diversity and specific feeding guilds, precisely in terms of the insectivorous and omnivorous communities. Hence, the study outcomes set a notable landmark for understanding birds and their habitats.

Freshwater Gastropod Diversity in The Selected Lotic Environment, Betong, Sarawak, Borneo

Freshwater Gastropoda can be considered as the biological indicator in ecosystems such as rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds. The objectives of this study are to identify freshwater gastropod species, diversity, and distribution along Sungai Penebak, Sungai Nanga Tiga, and Sungai Kabo in the Betong division. The study was conducted on 10 November 2020. A 50 m transect was laid on the riverbank of all three stations. The existing specimens were counted and collected from each sampling point and stored were taken to the laboratory for species identification. The diversity index and morphological study of freshwater gastropods were performed. Five species of freshwater gastropods belonging to four families were discovered. The five species of freshwater gastropods consisted of Sulcospira pageli, which shows great abundance, followed by Clea nigricans, Brotia costula, Pila ampullacea, and Vittina pennata. The diversity indices of collected Gastropoda species from the different stations, for instance, Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H’), Pielou’s evenness index (J’), and Margalef’s richness index were assessed; where station 3 showed higher diversity of Gastropoda compared to other two stations. The information presented in this paper might be helpful for ecological wealth studies and considered as the baseline data for the stream ecosystem in Sarawak, Malaysia.

Impacts of Freshwater Fish Sanctuaries on Fish and Crustacean Diversity, Catch, and Household Income of Fisherfolk in Baggao, Cagayan, Philippines

The study was conducted from February to March 2022 to assess the impacts of fish sanctuaries on fish and crustacean diversity, catch, and income of fisherfolk in Baggao, Cagayan. Data were collected from the 59 registered fisherfolk in the study areas using a structured survey instrument and were analyzed using descriptive methods. The Shannon-Weiner Diversity and Pielou indices were computed to determine fish diversity and evenness, respectively. The results showed that the diversity indices in the three study areas were 1.91 in Duba Cave, 1.66 in Hot Spring, and 1.58 in Bluewater Falls, and the average species evenness was 0.7. Further, the major species caught include Anguillasp., Oreochromis sp., Trichopodus sp., Crenimugil sp., Macrobrachium sp., Ciprinus sp., Clarias sp., Arius sp., Chana sp., Glossogobius sp., Sundathelphusa sp., Hyphorhamphus sp., and Gambusia sp. The volume of fish catch depends on the production space in the buffer zone, the time of fishing or fishing frequency, and the fishing gears used by the respondents. The sanctuaries also served as alternative livelihood and source of income for the respondents with the development of tourism, which provided jobs (e.g., tour guides, river wardens, project monitors, and laborers) to community residents. The study's results confirmed the positive impacts of fish sanctuaries on the diversity, catch, and household income of fisherfolk.

Diversity, Abundance, and Local Use of Fishes in Lake Danao, Ormoc City, Philippines

Lake Danao lies within the Lake Danao Natural Park in Ormoc City, Leyte, Philippines. The lake provides a habitat for various aquatic flora and faunal species. However, existing data on fish assemblage in Lake Danao is scarce and outdated. This study determined Lake Danao’s diversity, abundance, and local use of fish. With the help of local fishers, fish samples were collected from different parts of the lake twice a month for 14 months (March 2021 to June 2022). In addition, an ethnoicthyological survey was conducted to supplement the information on the provenance, endemism, and local use of the fish species in Lake Danao. This study recorded eight species of fish in Lake Danao, and only two are considered native (Anguilla marmorata and Clarias batrachus). Only five species were obtained from the fishers throughout the entire sampling period. On average, Glossogobius giuris was the most abundant species (95.96%), while Channa striata was the least (0.07%). The low Shannon-Weiner diversity index (mean = 0.19) and high Simpson’s dominance index (mean = 0.92) indicate low diversity and dominance of other species (e.g. G. giuris). No significant difference was observed in the diversity, dominance, and evenness of fishes between the sampling months. All of the fish species were used as alternative food sources. With the dominance of introduced species, local authorities are strongly encouraged to strictly regulate the entry, possession, and cultivation of exotic fish in Lake Danao and to continue the aquatic biodiversity assessment and monitoring in the area.

Spider diversity as an effort to mitigate insect pests in the Lingsar Vegetable Farming Area, West Lombok Regency

Arthropods have many roles in an ecosystem, including as pest biocontrol agents. Spiders are part of a group of arthropods that carry out this function by being predators of insect pests. This research aims to analyze the diversity of spider types in the Lingsar District Vegetable Area, West Lombok Regency. Data was collected from January to April 2023 using a survey method with sweeping nets three times per week and pitfall traps every week on five routes (west, south, east, centre, and north). Identification of spider types is carried out referring to morphological characteristics, guided by the identification book. The samples obtained were analyzed using the Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H'). The research results showed that the spider species identified in the Lingsar Vegetable Area comprised 11 species belonging to 10 families. Zoropsis spinimana from the Zoropsidae family was found in all sampling lines and was the species with the highest number of individuals. The species with the lowest number of individuals found in only one route are Ctenus hibernalis (Ctenidae) and Cryphoeca silvicola (Cybaeidae). The diversity index ranges from 1.188-1.654 (medium category), with the highest diversity in the middle route. The list of names of spider types obtained has the potential to be used as a basis for developing biocontrol of agricultural pests using their natural enemies in the form of spiders on horticultural crops such as vegetables.

Abundance and Diversity of Pleurotus Species and Host Trees for Sustainable Management in Ngel-Nyaki Montane Forest Ecosystem

Abundance and diversity of Pleurotus species (Oyester mushroom) and host trees for sustainable management in Ngel-Nyaki montane forest was conducted with the view to examine how abundant and diverse are Pleurotus species and their host trees in Ngel-Nyaki montane forest. A preliminary survey across the montane forest was carried out using opportunistic sampling protocol. Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (SWDI) was used to determined Pleurotus and host trees diversity. The species richness of the Pleurotus species and host trees spotted was determined as well as species evenness. SWDI for Pleurotus species was 1.15 and that of host trees was 0.74; species richness was 0.026 and 0.0125; while species evenness was 0.248 and 0.189 respectively. The Pleurotus species observed at Ngel-Nyaki montane forest were Pleurotus pulmonarius, P. ostreatus, P. djamor and P. eryngii and Polyschias fulva, Anthonata noldeae, and Ficus lutea as host respectively. Mushroom in general including Pleurotus species serves as a source of food and income for many locals as well as urban dwellers. Pleurotus host trees play important role in the survival of Pleurotus and also function as source of fuelwood, medicine, timber, global warming fight. Government, conservation societies as well as stakeholders should sponsor training workshops for the locals on how to raise mushroom farms in order to reduce their over dependence on the wild for services of Pleurotus and host trees.

Spatial and temporal distribution of fish egg communities in the adjacent waters of Daya Bay nuclear power plant and their relationship with environmental factors

The thermal discharge of Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant has a certain impact on the ecological environment of the adjacent waters. In order to understand and evaluate changes in the fish egg community structure in the adjacent waters of Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant and their relationship with environmental factors, four surveys were conducted to investigate fish eggs in January (winter), March (spring), August (summer) and November (autumn) of 2020. A total of 100,985 fish eggs were collected and 17 taxa were identified, belonging to five orders, 14 families and 17 genera. Among them, Perciformes and Clupeiformes were the main contributing taxa to fish egg species and abundance in the waters adjacent to Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant. The number of fish egg species ranged from high to low was summer, spring, autumn and winter; the average abundance ranged from high to low was spring, summer, winter and autumn. The results showed that except in winter, the average abundance of fish eggs was greater in northeast area than in southwest area. The Shannon-Weiner species diversity index (H’), Pielou evenness index (J’) and Margalef richness index (d) were significantly different between seasons, but none were significantly different between areas. The results of NMDS analysis showed that there were significant differences in fish egg communities between seasons. Surface seawater temperature the average abundance of fish eggs was positively correlated in the results of all four seasons. Although the entrainment effect of nuclear power plant water intake and thermal pollution of partial waters owing to thermal discharge can cause some loss of fish eggs, fish resources can still be effectively maintained.

Diversity of Macroinvertebrates in the Mangrove Forest of Brgy. Nabago, Surigao City, Philippines

Macroinvertebrate assemblages in the mangrove forest were assessed to determine the baseline information on the marine ecosystem in Barangay Nabago. Physicochemical parameters of soil and water were also determined to correlate with these bio-indicators. Three sampling stations were established. Live specimens were collected from natural substrates such as rocks, leaves, wood, and other debris through hand picking. To obtain macrobenthos, soil samples were collected using a core method with six-core samples from each plot. A 500 micrometer (0.5 mm) mesh size sieve was used to separate the macroinvertebrates from the sediments and any debris. A multiparameter checker determined the physicochemical parameters of water such as dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, total dissolved solids, and conductivity. Biodiversity indices such as species richness, abundance, density, Shannon-Weiner diversity index, and evenness were calculated using the Paleontological Statistical Software Package (PAST) version 3.20 with correlation analysis using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Station 3 obtained the highest frequency count of macroinvertebrates compared to the first (1) and second (2) stations, which correlate to the highest numerical value of the physicochemical parameters such as dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity, and pH. These physicochemical parameters were favourable for macroinvertebrate species to thrive. Soil characterized with the highest percentage of the sandy substrate also contributed to macroinvertebrates’ diversity, particularly in station 3, which obtained the highest diversity index (H’=2.436).

Vegetation description around the savanna flux measurement site at Benfontein Nature Reserve, South Africa

A flux tower with eddy covariance instruments was recently erected at Benfontein Nature Reserve (BNR) outside of Kimberley. An understanding of the landscape within the flux tower footprint, in this case natural vegetation, is necessary to interpret the data collected by the eddy covariance instruments. The tower was erected as part of the Expanded Freshwater and Terrestrial Environmental Observation Network (EFTEON) infrastructure initiative to establish long-term monitoring platforms focused on socially relevant terrestrial landscapes and their coupled hydrological systems. We sought to describe the vegetation within the flux tower footprint to set a baseline of the vegetation in the landscape at the inception of the long-term monitoring of flux measurements at BNR. Woody vegetation was surveyed in five square 1 ha plots while the herbaceous layer was sampled across 105 circular plots following the Socio-Ecological Observatory for Southern African Woodland (SEOSAW) protocol. Woody vegetation was quantified in terms of abundance, diversity and biomass, together with Size Class Distribution (SCD) methods to describe the woody vegetation structure. The herbaceous layer was described by species count, basal cover, biomass, and diversity which was assessed using the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. Five tree species, dominated by Vachellia erioloba, were found in the plots. Recruits (0 and 1 m tall) were significantly more abundant than large trees (1.2–9.5 m high). The SCD for the woody vegetation yielded a Type IIIa curve i.e. populations missing one or more size classes, for all tree species except Ziziphus mucronata which yielded a Type IIIb curve representing a population missing small sized trees. The herbaceous layer was diverse, consisting of 10 grass and 32 forb species. Schmidtia pappophoroides was the dominant grass species in terms of count, basal cover and aboveground biomass. Herbaceous biomass was two times higher than that of woody vegetation, with the North plot contributing the highest biomass for herbaceous and woody vegetation. The results indicate that the vegetation around the flux tower represents a wooded grassland, which is a type of a savanna. These vegetation data will contribute to the interpretation of data collected by the flux tower instruments now and in the future. Furthermore, long-term data collection in this reserve is needed to capture the woody vegetation dynamics and its interaction with the herbaceous layer.

Species Composition and Diversity of Plants along Human-Induced Disturbances in Tropical Moist Sal Forests of Eastern Ghats, India

Plant biodiversity data are prerequisites for the sustainable management of a forest. We used quantitative ecological tools to determine the species composition, diversity (richness and evenness), population structure, distribution patterns, and regeneration status of trees in a Tropical Moist Sal Forest of Eastern Ghats, India. For this purpose, a field inventory was conducted during 2020–2022 in sixteen 1.0 ha forest stands along a human-induced disturbance gradient. A total of 161 species (61 trees, 40 shrubs, 60 herbs) belonging to 77 families and 143 genera were recorded in the 16.0 ha of forest area. The results revealed a significant (p < 0.01) decrease in the tree and shrub species density, basal area, species richness, and diversity along the gradient of disturbance. However, in the case of herbs, the Shannon–Weiner diversity index increased significantly (p < 0.01) with increasing disturbance levels. Irrespective of forest types and disturbance levels, the tree diameter class (10–30 cm) accounted for the highest stem density in the forest. A mixed trend was found in the case of the basal area; the >41 cm diameter class constituted the highest basal area in the Pure Sal Forest while the 10–30 cm class was in the Moist Deciduous Forest without Sal. Tree species richness was found higher in lower diameter classes. Disturbances impacted the distribution pattern of trees; in the Pure Sal Forest, the contagious distribution of trees were 61.54%, 40%, and 12.5% in undisturbed, low-disturbed, and moderately disturbed sites, respectively. The percent of trees showing random and regular distribution increased with the increased level of disturbance in all forest types. The number of tree species having good regeneration decreased with the increased disturbance intensity in all forest types. Frequent grazing, repeated forest fires, and poor soil seed banks at the Moderately Disturbed site were the main reasons for the poor/no regeneration of Pterocarpus marsupium, Adina cordifolia, Terminalia bellerica, and some other economical species. Significant changes in structural attributes of the tree community revealed the impact of human-induced disturbances in the Moist Sal Forests of Eastern Ghats. The disturbance mosaics promoted the growth of many invasive weed species and lianas, depleting the number of valuable species in the forest. This study suggests the adaption of sustainable biodiversity conservation approaches through the active participation of the tribal so that the remnants the Moist Sal Forests of Eastern Ghats can be controlled to prevent further degradation.

Diversity and Abundance of Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) in Sethu Bhaskara Agricultural College and Research Foundation, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, South India

Butterflies play a vital role in the ecosystem, acting as pollinators, pollution indicators, pests, predators, weed killers, a good source of food and being of aesthetic, economic and ecological importance. World-wide butterfly populations are on the decline due to habitat destruction and deforestation. This study was taken with the prime objective of preparing the checklist of butterflies at Sethu Bhaskara Agricultural College and Research Foundation, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, from April 2023 to July 2023. A total of 976 individuals of 76 species belonging to 5 families have been recorded in the survey. For this study, the college was mapped into four different habitats: botanical garden area, agricultural field area, horticultural field area and grassland area. Results revealed that the family Nymphalidae showed the maximum number of species (22.0 species) from 12 genera (29.0%), followed by Lycaenidae (20.0 species) from17genera (26.5%), Pieridae (18.0 species) from 9 genera (24.0%), Hesperiidae (12.0 species) from 11 genera (16.0%) and the least being Papilionidae (4.0 species) from 2 genera (5.5%). Among the four sites, the botanical garden area ranks first with the highest number of butterflies (140 species, N =280), followed by the horticultural field area (129 species, N = 258), the agricultural field area (115 species, N = 230) and the grassland area (104 species, N = 208). According to the monthly distribution of butterflies, the maximum number of species and abundance were recorded in the months of July (307 species, N = 332), followed by June (141 species, N = 282), April (112 species, N= 224) and least in May (69 species, N = 138). The overall Shannon-Weiner diversity index was H = 1.50, Pielou’s evenness index was E = 0.60 and Margalef’s index was R = 13.30. This study illustrated useful information on butterfly diversity in the study region, which serves as a baseline for future monitoring programs.

Diversity and abundance of birds in dumpsites of Afar region, Ethiopia: implication for conservation

BackgroundDumpsites play key role in conservation of birds. A study was conducted to assess the diversity and abundance of birds in dumpsites of Afar region, Ethiopia from August, 2019 to March, 2020, covering both the wet and dry seasons. A total of nine dumpsites that contain domestic wastes found in different towns of Afar region were selected. Point count technique was employed to identify and count the birds. Shannon-Weiner diversity index was used to estimate species diversity and Two-way ANOVA was used to test birds’ species richness and abundance variation across dumpsites and seasons.ResultsA total of 48 bird species consisting of one endemic and 10 globally threatened species were recorded. Red-billed Quelea, Marabou Stork and Egyptian Vulture were the most abundant species. There was a significant difference in bird species richness and abundance among dumpsites (F = 8.44, df = 8, P < 0.05) and F = 15.507, df = 8, P < 0.05), respectively. Moreover, a significant difference in abundance was also observed between the two seasons (F = 19.339, df = 1, P < 0.05). The highest species diversity (H’ = 3.18) was observed during wet season in Abala and Afambo dumpsites and the highest species evenness (E = 0.86) was observed during dry season in Afdera.ConclusionBird species diversity and abundance among dumpsites was high, and man-made disturbance are main threats for conservation of birds in the area. Therefore, conservation measures are needed to maintain survival of birds mainly the globally threatened species. Moreover, proper management of dumpsites is vital to support the waste dependent birds.