Shanidar Research Articles

Herbivore enamel carbon and oxygen isotopes demonstrate both Homo sapiens and Neanderthals exploited similar habitats in the Zagros Mountains

ABSTRACTThe extinction of Neanderthal populations has been attributed to the onset of cold and dry climatic conditions during Marine Isotope Stage 3 or their competition with anatomically modern humans for large game resources. However, decoupling climate from competition has long proved difficult. Loess sequences and pollen cores provide regional‐scale environmental information but are less well‐suited to providing local‐scale habitat information contemporaneous with hominin habitation of occupation sites. The relationship between climate and resource availability is particularly unknown in the Zagros mountain range where archaeological evidence for both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens occupation is documented. Here, we analyse carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) stable isotopes measured from herbivore tooth enamel carbonates recovered from the Neanderthal and modern human occupation sites of Bawa Yawan Rockshelter and Shanidar Cave to trace local‐scale floral biome dynamics and climate conditions that influence the distribution and availability of large prey targeted by both hominin species. Shared isotopic composition of herbivorous fauna, largely represented by wild goats, from both sites spanning Neanderthal and Homo sapiens occupation indicate both hominin species exploited similar habitats during climatically similar phases.

Cooking in caves: Palaeolithic carbonised plant food remains from Franchthi and Shanidar

Research on Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer diet has focused on the consumption of animals. Evidence for the use of plant foods is comparatively limited but is rapidly expanding. The authors present an analysis of carbonised macro-remains of processed plants from Franchthi Cave in the Aegean Basin and Shanidar Cave in the north-west Zagros Mountains. Microscopic examination of the charred food remains reveals the use of pounded pulses as a common ingredient in cooked plant foods. The results are discussed in the context of the regional archaeobotanical literature, leading the authors to argue that plants with bitter and astringent tastes were key ingredients of Palaeolithic cuisines in South-west Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean.

The Paleolithic of northwestern Zagros. 2012–2019 MAFGS Survey: Data and preliminary results

Between 2012 and 2019, the surveys conducted by the French archaeological mission of the Soulaimanih Governorate in the Rania and Peshadar plains of Iraqi Kurdistan, previously devoid of Paleolithic records, have yielded numerous lithic assemblages from open-air sites, caves and rock-shelters. We present here six lithic assemblages from the three districts surveyed, Rania, Peshdar and Dukan. Despite the absence of chronostratigraphic contexts and the still fragmentary data, the first typo-technological analyses carried out allow us to propose a first techno-cultural attribution to the Paleolithic and, more specifically for some assemblages, to the Middle Paleolithic. Among the sites uncovered, it is certainly the Paleolithic shelter of Sarsyan-Rostam Agha that was the most distinctive and which represents, with the Shanidar cave, one of the rare Paleolithic sites preserved in the northwestern Zagros. Its preserved Paleolithic sequence, rich in archaeological remains, and explored in a test-pit conducted in 2018, shows clear affinities with the Mousterian Zagros industries, a well-defined entity based on sites such as Shanidar, Bisitun, Warwasi and Mar Tarik.

Le Moustérien du Zagros : une vision synthétique à partir de la grotte de Shanidar

The Zagros Mousterian is a Middle Palaeolithic techno-typological lithic complex, found down the length of the Zagros mountain range in Iraq and Iran. It is associated with Neanderthal skeletal remains at four sites, most famously Shanidar Cave. Dating is problematic, but the indications are that Neanderthals with this cultural apparatus were present in the Zagros region from the beginning of the last interglacial (Marine Isotope Stage 5e) c.130.000 years ago through to c. 40.000 years ago during the last glacial. The humid deciduous woodland of MIS 5 was replaced by increasingly dry steppe in MIS 4 and MIS 3. Microfaunal assemblages and paleosols indicate that Neanderthals visited Shanidar Cave when environmental conditions were broadly similar to those of today, primarily in the humid phases of MIS 5 and then during brief climatic ameliorations in MIS 4 and MIS 3 that may correlate with Dansgaard-Oescheger events. Caves with Mousterian occupations at high altitudes suggest that they, too, were used by Neanderthals when conditions were not dissimilar to those of today. The indications are that the Zagros Mousterian represents the seasonal activities of highly mobile small and dispersed groups of Neanderthal foragers connected in social networks of shared cultural values and/or norms.

The Microvertebrates of Shanidar Cave: Preliminary Taphonomic Findings

Shanidar Cave, Iraqi Kurdistan, is one of the most important Palaeolithic sites in Southwest Asia. This is due to the long sequence of hominin occupation of the cave and the discovery of multiple Neanderthal individuals from the original Solecki excavations (1951–1960) and recent excavations (2014 to present). Preliminary taphonomic analyses of the microvertebrate assemblage were undertaken to understand the factors affecting assemblage formation and accumulation, and this paper presents the first results of these analyses. All contexts display a high proportion of fragmentation, with a slight decrease in breakage towards the base of the sequence. Black staining and root etching were observed in a similar pattern, present in most contexts but with an increase in the lower levels. A significant proportion of the microvertebrate remains examined displayed light traces of digestion, indicating some contribution to the assemblage by predators. The results are consistent with wider palaeoecological records that indicate relatively warm, wet conditions at the base of the sequence and cooler, drier conditions at the top.

Characteristics of Carbonate Rocks and Environmental Conditions of Some Caves, Northern Iraq

Six caves were studied in north Iraq, which is the Beeston and Shanidar in Erbil, Garston, Swaratuka, and Ain Ishky in Duhok Governorate, Al-Naqut in Nineveh Governorate. All these caves are located within geological formations of carbonate rocks, limestone, and dolostone. Geotechnical and geometrical measurements were made for these caves, and rocks were sampled from different areas inside and outside the caves. The slake durability of the rocks was measured and thin sections were made, in addition to measuring the percentage of insoluble residues and analyzing the mineral constituents of the collected samples by using X-ray diffraction. By reviewing the geotechnical characteristics and environmental conditions, the Beeston Cave was found to be the oldest of the caves studied because its size is greater than that of the other caves and its rocks have better geotechnical characteristics than the other caves, which means that the time required for it to form is longer. The Al-Naqut Cave was also found to be the newest among these six caves because, in addition to its small size, it has the lowest durability value after the Shanidar Cave and has the lowest value of compressive strength.

The Achievements of Prehistoric Human in Iraqi Kurdistan and Manifestations of his Civilization Until the End of the Upper Paleolithic

The land of Kurdistan was distinguished by variations in terrain, environment and climate. The natural and climatic characteristics had a great influence in creating environments suitable for settlement. This helped to provide the basic necessities for living and its sources of water, plants and animals. It provided a home for early hunters and collectors of food to benefit from the rich environment resources. This led to the emergence of the first signs of the human pioneers, and the oldest evidence of human settlement in this area was found at the Burdat Balka site in the form of axes and shrapnel. The discovery of remnants of many civilized materials in the open and caves of the region, most of which contain stone tools for hunting activities. Indicates that hunting was a basic pattern of economic life for the first human groups during the ancient stone ages. The Shanidar Cave is one of the ancient caves within the northwestern extension of the Zagros Mountains, which was settled by humans during the Paleolithic period due to the suitability of the climatic condition of the cave site and the richness of the region with livelihoods and with springs and streams and the availability of hunting animals. This will deal with extensive research in order to contribute to giving a clear picture of the distinguished role of this region in the record of human civilization.

Reuniting Archaeology and Archives through the Smithsonian Institution’s Ralph S. and Rose L. Solecki Papers and Artifacts Project

The Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History recently conducted a two-year project to process and connect the archives and artifacts of archaeologists Ralph and Rose Solecki, most famous for their work at the sites of Shanidar Cave and Zawi Chemi Shanidar in northern Iraq. Through a collaboration between the archivally-focused National Anthropological Archives and the object-focused Department of Anthropology collections management group, the Ralph S. and Rose L. Solecki Papers and Artifacts Project sought to set an example for archaeological collections and archives stewardship by preserving the association between archaeological specimens and archival records through an integrative methodology of archival processing and specimen cataloging to increase their value to future researchers. Further, the project provides a case study intended to contribute to interdisciplinary conversations about the enduring legacy of archaeologists and their collections within archives and museums through collaborative collections and archives management.

Shanidar Cave in Northern Iraq (Kurdistan Region), a National Geopark Recommendation

Shanidar Cave is located in north Iraq (Kurdistan Region), it is one of the most well-known caves in the region due to its archeological significance. It is an archaeological site which is located within Bradost Mountain north of Erbil city. In the cave, eleven skeletons of Neanderthals, have been found dating back to 65000 – 35000 years B.C., they were called Shanidar (1-11). The cave also contains two later proto-Neolithiccemeteries. The cave is developed due to dissolution of limestone beds of the Qamchuqa Formation which forms the carapace of Bradost Mountain (anticline). Currently, the cave and the downslopes to the foothills of the mountain are limited by a fence. The cave can be reached by a paved road to the foothills level, then by stepping following artificially constructed leader which is designed and constructed by local materials from stones and wood giving to the leader a natural view. The Shanidar cave is highly recommended to be a national Geopark due to its archeological significance

Issues of theory and method in the analysis of Paleolithic mortuary behavior: A view from Shanidar Cave.

Mortuary behavior (activities concerning dead conspecifics) is one of many traits that were previously widely considered to have been uniquely human, but on which perspectives have changed markedly in recent years. Theoretical approaches to hominin mortuary activity and its evolution have undergone major revision, and advances in diverse archeological and paleoanthropological methods have brought new ways of identifying behaviors such as intentional burial. Despite these advances, debates concerning the nature of hominin mortuary activity, particularly among the Neanderthals, rely heavily on the rereading of old excavations as new finds are relatively rare, limiting the extent to which such debates can benefit from advances in the field. The recent discovery of in situ articulated Neanderthal remains at Shanidar Cave offers a rare opportunity to take full advantage of these methodological and theoretical developments to understand Neanderthal mortuary activity, making a review of these advances relevant and timely.

New Neanderthal remains associated with the ‘flower burial’ at Shanidar Cave

Abstract

Neanderthals really did bury their dead

Archaeologists in Iraq have discovered a new Neanderthal skeleton that appears to have been deliberately buried between about 60,000 and 70,000 years ago. The find reinforces earlier claims that this extinct type of human used graves for their dead. Excavations of Shanidar cave in northern Iraq in the 1950s and 1960s yielded the remains of 10 Neanderthals, including one dubbed Shanidar 4, which was found with clumps of pollen--suggesting the body had been deliberately placed in a grave and flowers scattered on it. Here, Marshall discusses an analysis by Emma Pomeroy at the University of Cambridge and her team of a new set of remains from the cave: the upper half of a Neanderthal. They found multiple lines of evidence that this Neanderthal was deliberately buried, including that fact that the sediment layer around the body is visibly different to the layer below. What is more, the sediment below the body shows signs of having been disturbed by digging.

Shanidar Cave - An Interesting Archaeological Site in the Kurdistan Region, Iraq

Shanidar Cave is one of the most well-known caves in Iraqi Kurdistan Region. It is an archaeological site located within Bradost Mountain north of Erbil city. Eleven skeletons of Neanderthals, have been found within the cave dating back to 65000 – 35000 years, they were called Shanidar (1 – 11). The cave also contains two later "proto-Neolithic" cemeteries.

Origin of an Early Upper Palaeolithic obsidian burin at Ksar Akil (Lebanon): Evidence of increased connectivity ahead of the Levantine Aurignacian?

Given the importance of the Levant in understanding the origins and dispersals of modern humans, there has been great interest in archaeological evidence to support population movements between the Levant and adjacent regions. The link, if any, between the Aurignacian tradition across Europe and the “Levantine Aurignacian” is a particular focus. Ksar Akil in Lebanon not only is one of the most deeply stratified Levantine sites but also has the longest record of Upper Paleolithic behaviors, so it is a benchmark to which developments in the Levant are often compared. Schmidt and Zimmermann (2019) recently proposed that the European Aurignacian tradition might best be understood in terms of connectivity, as evidenced by long-distance lithic transfers that can act as a proxy for mobility and social networks. Here we document a previously unreported obsidian burin from Ksar Akil. Portable X-ray fluorescence reveals that it matches a source ≥700 km away on foot in central Turkey. Two recent dating programs have calculated ages of ~41–38 and ~39–37 ka cal BP for its layer, which also included an obsidian flake and immediately precedes the Levantine Aurignacian at the site. The obsidian artifacts from Ksar Akil are roughly contemporaneous obsidian from Yabroud Rockshelter II in Syria and Shanidar Cave in Iraq. Such instances of long-distance obsidian transport imply that connectivity might have risen ahead of the Levantine and Zagros Aurignacian. Unfortunately, due to the limited chronological resolution of older excavations at these sites, only at Ksar Akil can we have confidence that the layer containing obsidian artifacts immediately precedes the earliest Levantine Aurignacian sensu stricto layer. Given the apparent rarity of obsidian in the Levant, this region will benefit from endeavors to nondestructively source other toolstone materials as a means to create datasets similar to those recently used to model cultural areas of the European Aurignacian.

Evidence for skinning and craft activities from the Middle Paleolithic of Shanidar Cave, Iraq

Between 1951 and 1960 Ralph S. Solecki excavated the cave of Shanidar, in the Zagros Mountains of Iraqi Kurdistan. Layer D, the lower 14 m of deposit, contained more than nine Neanderthal skeletons. Associated with them was a large assemblage of animal bones, predominantly of wild goats, that were the remains of their meals. As was the practice of the time, this faunal assemblage retained only the recognizable skeletal elements and was split among several repositories. This has made modern faunal studies difficult, but a study of the cut-marks is still feasible. We found that a large number of the bones were cut. The cut-marks on the phalanges and calcaneus closely resembled those left on bones by experimental skinning and tendon removal. As pointed out by Binford (1981), these marks point to fine skinning, suitable for making garments. Together with removal of the tendons, this evidence suggests varied craft activities.

Shanidar Cave and the Baradostian, a Zagros Aurignacian industry

Whilst there has been significant interest in the origins and spread of the Aurignacian industry, usually linked with the physical dispersal of anatomically modern humans into Europe, comparatively little attention has been paid to possible origins or movements further east. Recent work at Shanidar Cave, a site better known for the Neanderthal evidence discovered by Ralph Solecki in his 1951–1960 excavations, has recovered new information on the “Baradostian” Upper Palaeolithic in Iraq. This paper reviews the regional evidence for the Baradostian as an example of the Zagros Aurignacian and discusses its place in debates about Neanderthal/Modern Human relations.

Newly discovered Neanderthal remains from Shanidar Cave, Iraqi Kurdistan, and their attribution to Shanidar 5

The Neanderthal remains from Shanidar Cave, excavated between 1951 and 1960, have played a central role in debates concerning diverse aspects of Neanderthal morphology and behavior. In 2015 and 2016, renewed excavations at the site uncovered hominin remains from the immediate area where the partial skeleton of Shanidar 5 was found in 1960. Shanidar 5 was a robust adult male estimated to have been aged over 40 years at the time of death. Comparisons of photographs from the previous and recent excavations indicate that the old and new remains were directly adjacent to one another, while the disturbed arrangement and partial crushing of the new fossils is consistent with descriptions and photographs of the older discoveries. The newly discovered bones include fragments of several vertebrae, a left hamate, part of the proximal left femur, a heavily crushed partial pelvis, and the distal half of the right tibia and fibula and associated talus and navicular. All these elements were previously missing from Shanidar 5, and morphological and metric data are consistent with the new elements belonging to this individual. A newly discovered partial left pubic symphysis indicates an age at death of 40–50 years, also consistent with the age of Shanidar 5 estimated previously. Thus, the combined evidence strongly suggests that the new finds can be attributed to Shanidar 5. Ongoing analyses of associated samples, including for sediment morphology, palynology, and dating, will therefore offer new evidence as to how this individual was deposited in the cave and permit new analyses of the skeleton itself and broader discussion of Neanderthal morphology and variation.

Chronometric investigations of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in the Zagros Mountains using AMS radiocarbon dating and Bayesian age modelling

The Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition is often linked with a bio-cultural shift involving the dispersal of modern humans outside of Africa, the concomitant replacement of Neanderthals across Eurasia, and the emergence of new technological traditions. The Zagros Mountains region assumes importance in discussions concerning this period as its geographic location is central to all pertinent hominin migration areas, pointing to both east and west. As such, establishing a reliable chronology in the Zagros Mountains is crucial to our understanding of these biological and cultural developments. Political circumstance, coupled with the poor preservation of organic material, has meant that a clear chronological definition of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition for the Zagros Mountains region has not yet been achieved. To improve this situation, we have obtained new archaeological samples for AMS radiocarbon dating from three sites: Kobeh Cave, Kaldar Cave, and Ghār-e Boof (Iran). In addition, we have statistically modelled previously published radiocarbon determinations for Yafteh Cave (Iran) and Shanidar Cave (Iraqi Kurdistan), to improve their chronological resolution and enable us to compare the results with the new dataset. Bayesian modelling results suggest that the onset of the Upper Paleolithic in the Zagros Mountains dates to 45,000–40,250 cal BP (68.2% probability). Further chronometric data are required to improve the precision of this age range.

Book Review: Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History

Designed to be comprehensive in its scope, this set covers major religious events from remote prehistory (ca. 60,000 BC) to the highly contemporaneous (AD 2014). Taken together, the editors have done an admirable job in choosing topics to cover and in compiling a highly readable, informative, and thought-provoking compilation. The first volume covers the period of prehistory to AD 600 and includes entries for topics as diverse as the first burials that indicate a belief in an afterlife found in Shanidar Cave, Iraq (ca. 60,000 BC), the discovery of the oldest human-made place of worship at Göbekli Tepe in modern Turkey (tenth millennium BC), the ritual use of alcohol (ca. third millennium BC), the founding of Buddhism (sixth to fourth centuries BC), the Roman conquest of Judaea in 63 BC, the conversion of Saul (Saint Paul) in AD 34, the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, and the papacy of Gregory the Great (reigned AD 590–604). Volume 2 covers from AD 600 to 1450, thus encompassing the Middle Ages in the West, the rise of Islam in the Middle East, the growth of Christian monasticism, the crusades, the development of the first universities in Europe, and the lives of Joan of Arc and Jan Hus. The final volume covers from 1450 to the present, starting with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks and ending with the rise of the Islamic State (ISIS, ISIL, or Daesh) in 2014.

An incised shell object from Baradostian (Early Upper Palaeolithic) layers in Shanidar Cave, Iraqi Kurdistan

Shanidar Cave contains one of the most important Palaeolithic archaeological sequences in West Asia. During renewed excavations of Baradostian (Upper Palaeolithic) layers in the cave, an incised land-snail shell fragment was recovered. A natural cause seems unlikely and it does not appear likely to reflect palaeoeconomic functions. It is suggested tentatively that this may have been made during manufacture of a composite artefact designed for visual display. Although Upper Palaeolithic ornaments are often reported, composite ornaments of this period are rather unusual.