Shang Dynasty Research Articles

The concept of religious authority and power of the monarch in Shang Dynasty

The Shang Dynasty people practiced theocentrism, Valuing Sacrifices and serving ghosts,and everything had to be predicted through divination. There are many deities in the Shang Dynasty, including three major systems: heavenly gods, earthly spirits, and human ghosts. Di has the greatest authority and is the ruler of nature. He has the characteristics of being extraordinary, not being influenced by human will, and is the supreme god in the belief world of the Shang Dynasty people. He is integrated with the ancestors of the Shang kings. The original meaning of Di was the ancestor and the god of reproduction of all things in the universe, which was very similar to the Western concept of 'God' as the creator. In the religious belief system of the Shang Dynasty, people did not directly offer sacrifices to the heavenly gods, and every request must be achieved through the intermediary of the ancestral ghosts. After the death of the Shang kings, they were all honored as Di, which led to the formation of the "combination of sorcerers and kings" and the "the unification of politics and religion" system in the late Shang Dynasty. In the late Shang Dynasty, a trinity structure of Di, Ancestral Spirit, and Kings was formed,which dominated the heavens and earth jointly, completed the integration of theocracy and kingship, and the combination of supreme god and extreme authoritarianism, formed a political ideological system of Religious indoctrination, had an important impact on later Chinese history and is worthy of our in-depth study.

Red and Ink in Oracle Bone Inscriptions

Based on oracle bone inscriptions, it is evident that the color system of the Shang Dynasty was relatively advanced and mature, with frequent references to white color in extant literature, forming the concept of "Shang people value white." However, with the discovery of vermillion and ink inscriptions on oracle bones and the use of red and black in many oracle texts, the veracity of the notion of "Shang people value white" remains debatable. This is closely related to the concepts of "Xia people value black" and "Zhou people value red," as the Shang Dynasty was positioned between the Xia and Zhou Dynasties, and color usage and other cultural practices were likely inherited by the succeeding dynasties. Thus, vermillion, ink, and white colors were all crucial to the Shang people.

Char and soot records of the Holocene fire history and its implications for climate-vegetation change and human activities within the Guanzhong Basin, southern Loess Plateau, China

Black carbon in sediments has been widely used as a proxy for biomass burning/fire activity to reconstruct fire history and its evolution. Wildfire studies have revealed that different types of black carbon (char and soot) are formed due to changes in combustion efficiency. In this study, we obtained black carbon and its two subtypes, char and soot, from a typical Holocene aeolian loess-paleosol section in the Chilanqiao Ruins within the Guanzhong Basin, southern Loess Plateau, China. Combined with environmental proxies such as magnetic susceptibility, loss on ignition, and geochemical elements, along with AMS14C and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates, we reconstructed the Holocene fire history and its evolution on the southern Loess Plateau at local and regional scales. The findings indicate that the limited vegetation during the relatively dry and cold early Holocene may have inhibited the spread of fires. In the warmer and wetter middle Holocene, there was higher local smoldering fire activity, likely influenced by both wet climatic conditions and an increase in the proportion of woody plants. Additionally, the fire history in relation to human activities at Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) including land reclamation, house construction, and bronze casting has also been identified. There has been a significant increase in regional flaming fire activity in the late Holocene as a result of drier climate and increased human activity. Notably, the significant increase in regional flaming fire activity since ~1.00 ka can be primarily linked to human-set fires with the usage of gunpowder in frequent wars. This research holds great importance in enhancing our understanding of the long-term interactions among fire activities, climate change and human activities.

Spatiotemporal variation of human settlement distribution between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties in relation to flooding in the lower Yellow River floodplain, East China

Both historical documents and geological archives have recorded frequent extreme flood occurrences between approximately 3200 and 3000 cal. yr BP (i.e., the late Shang dynasty) in East China. As a flood-prone area, the lower Yellow River floodplain experienced significant changes in human settlement between the Shang (1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE) dynasties. However, the relationship between extreme flood occurrences and changes in human settlement remains unclear. This study aims to examine the spatiotemporal variations of settlement distribution between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties in relation to extreme flooding during the late Shang dynasty. The results indicate that settlement distribution and settlement density exhibited clear shifts between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, and the period of the late Shang dynasty was an extreme-flood-rich interval within and around the lower Yellow River floodplain. Because the course of the lower Yellow River was relatively stable during the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, frequent extreme flood occurrences during the late Shang dynasty should change the hydrological settings in key locations along the lower Yellow River course. The northern Henan and its southeastern low-lying areas were subjected to frequent crevasses from the flooding of the Yellow River between approximately 3200 and 3000 cal. yr BP. These significant hydrological changes in northern Henan and its southeastern low-lying areas, combined with frequent wars and conflicts between local tribes and Shang people, likely contributed to a decrease in settlement number and a contraction of settlement distribution. In response to the floods during the late Shang dynasty, ancient inhabitants most likely elevated their dwellings and created the mound sites that exist in the lower Yellow River floodplain today.

Lead isotope ratio analysis of lead ingots and bronze wares unearthed from Yinxu

AbstractThis study gives the element compositions and Pb isotope ratios of three lead ingots and three bronze artefacts unearthed from Yinxu, Anyang, Henan province, and two lead vessels from Zhengxiaozhuang tomb, Anhui province, China. The results of composition analysis show that three lead ingots in Yinxu may be the primary product of lead smelting. The lead wares unearthed in Zhengxiaozhuang tomb could be a kind of Mingqi‐funerary replicas. The results of Pb isotope analysis indicate that the culture exchanges between the Central Plains and the Jianghuai area in the late Shang dynasty. The decrease of bronzes with the highly radiogenic lead is consistent with the increase of Pb content in Yinxu bronzes simultaneously, which could be related to the change of lead source.

A study of the di sacrifice rite in the Spring and Autumn Period

ABSTRACT The di sacrifice rite (dili 禘禮) is an important traditional Chinese religious ceremony for offering sacrifices to ancestors. The rites of the Shang, Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Periods have evolved in terms of the person who conducts them, as well as regarding the recipients, forms and the time of the ritual. In the Shang Dynasty, the di sacrifice rite was performed by the king. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, the person who presided over the ceremony was first the King of Zhou, and then the counsellors. The Spring and Autumn di sacrifice rite inherited these practices and understandings. It involves a more detailed ritual: those who preside over the ceremony are first the feudal lords (zhuhou 諸侯), then the counsellors (qing dafu 卿大夫) and finally descending to the rank of officials of counsellors (jiachen 家臣). The di sacrifice addressees are also mainly close ancestors. The di rite eventually evolved to give rise to guan rituals (guanli 灌[祼]禮), auspicious ancestral rites, private di sacrifices, procedures for determining generation order of the clan temple (ding zhaomu 定昭穆), and other rituals.

Tekhnicheskie i hudozhestvennye osobennosti bronzovyh izdelij epohi dinastii Shan-In'

The Yin and Shang period was an important stage in the development of Chinese civilization, the heyday of the Bronze Age. As an important symbol of social hierarchy in the Yin Shang Dynasty, bronze ritual vessels are a basis for studying the etiquette system and the social life history of the Shang Dynasty, and also studying the casting techniques of bronze vessels. The article studies the shape and modeling characteristics of bronze ware in the Yin Shang Dynasty, as well as its cultural and artistic images.

Bronze alloying recipes at Anyang during the Shang Dynasty

We present a detailed analysis of the chemical alloying data (Cu, Sn, Pb) on the bronzes recovered from the Late Shang capital at Yinxu, revealing a complex pattern which varies by social status and object typology, and which also changes over time. The preference for higher tin in the bronze vessels and weapons for the elites during Yinxu Phase II gives way to a more binary pattern (with weapons being preferentially alloyed with lead) for the lower elites of phase II, which becomes prevalent in subsequent phases. These changes are interpreted in terms of different ‘alloying practices’, which attempts to reconstruct the way in which the alloys are created at the point of casting. The alloy type described here as A1/A2 (11–24% tin, 0 to 3–5% lead) seems most likely to have been created by mixing together three components, corresponding to mixing relatively pure copper, tin and lead. This contrasts with the suggestion in the Kaogong Ji, several hundred years later, that binary pre-prepared alloys were used. It is now important to determine when such a change might have occurred. The suggestion that alloy type B (low tin, variably high lead) could have been made by combining pure copper with a slightly impure lead (95%Pb/5%Sn) hints that such practices might have started during the Shang, but requires more work, especially on the intervening Western and Eastern Zhou periods.

Confucian Discourse Being Formed: Transmutation of Bo Yi and Shu Qi Allegory in Early China

Through the process of sanctification over generations, Bo Yi and Shu Qi, the two adherents to Shang, have, to some extent, become the moral models in Chinese cultural memory. While their starvation to death for the sake of the Right Way has been extolled by non-imperial and imperial scholars, it must not be neglected that the account of Bo Yi and Shu Qi is naturally marked by an inescapable contradiction: their sage allegiance to the Shang Dynasty was, in fact, a very dismantling of the legitimacy of Zhou in the sense of Heavenly Mandate that the Zhou had constructed. Scholars of ancient China had shaped and presented the two as models for their times and future generations, but almost none of them showed direct interest in boldly discussing the contradiction. By focusing on how Chinese classics in an early stage dealt with the dilemma of judgment between the moral paragons and the legitimacy of an ideal era in accounts of the Bo Yi allegory, this paper demonstrates the changing process from the abstract and general narration of Confucius and Mencius to the comprehensive, paradoxical, and dialectical narration of Sima Qian, reflecting Confucianisms progression in maturity in early China.

Chronology of the Seima-Turbino bronzes, early Shang Dynasty and Santorini eruption

Abstract Seima-Turbino bronzes spread in Eurasia at the transition to the Late Bronze Age. However, the absolute chronology of this horizon remains unclear. Radiocarbon chronology now determines their interval to have been ca. 22nd–20th centuries BC, or the first third of the 2nd millennium BC. The presence of this tradition from Europe to China makes it possible to associate them with historical chronology. The basis for this is the chronologies of the early Shang Dynasty in China, Central Europe and the Shaft Graves of Greece. The Santorini eruption presents an opportunity to compare these chronologies. As a result, the Seima-Turbino bronzes are dated to the first half of the 17th century BC, or within the 18th century BC to the first half of the 16th century BC. This suggests that as the radiocarbon method develops, its results will be close to historical chronology.

Traffic safety and public health in China – Past knowledge, current status, and future directions

Transportation-related harms have developed into a social disease, threatening public safety and health in China. We aimed to increase the global understanding of traffic safety and public health in China from past knowledge, current status, and future directions by collecting, collating, and analyzing the Chinese traffic incidents reported in the published literature. A systematic search of China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Weipu, and published articles referenced in PubMed, Web of Science and ProQuest between January 1, 1988 and April 30, 2023 was performed. China encountered the first recorded traffic accident as early as three thousand years ago in the Shang Dynasty. An increase in vehicle capacity and velocity increased the traffic risks during the transition from rickshaws and livestock to motor vehicles in varying traffic environments. Humans are not only the decisive factor of a large number of vehicles, traffic routes, and environmental variables, but also the victims at the end and starting point of traffic accidents. Injuries (mechanical force, burns) and diseases (traffic-related air pollution, noise) caused by traffic activities not only threaten public health, but also cause risks to safe driving. Analysis of traffic activities and biomarkers promotes the treatment of traffic injuries in ethology and medicine. China prepared for the construction of healthy transportation in the “decade of road safety” toward an estimation of worldwide road traffic injuries in 2030. Improvement of traffic safety concerning public health under the “Outline of the National Comprehensive Three-dimensional Transportation Network Planning” in China will propel the realization of worldwide traffic environmental advancement.

LUMINOSITY, SPIRIT, AND THE ROLE OF CLAPPER-BELLS IN THE FORMATION OF A CHINESE METALLURGICAL TRADITION

AbstractThis article explores the manner in which the Eurasian metallurgical tradition was transformed into an indigenous tradition on the Chinese Central Plains. It argues that the association of luminosity with the divine has a cognitive foundation, which accounts for the use translucent stones and shiny metals, including copper, bronze, silver, and gold as mediums for religious artifacts throughout the world. In China, this association was the primary impetus for the development of an indigenous metallurgy based on a piece-mold and coring technology. Although the technology ultimately concentrated on the production of ritual vessels, it was first developed at Yanshi Erlitou 偃師二里頭 for the production of clapper-bells (ling 鈴), which had similar round hollow bodies.We further explore the history of clapper-bells, arguing that they were a development of a Central Plains tradition dating back to the Yangshao 仰韶 period (5000–3000 b.c.e.). We argue that their religious significance at Erlitou lay in the previously unheard sound produced when the two luminous substances, jade and bronze, struck against one another. Thus, religious interlocutors at Erlitou used them to contact the ancestral spirits. Later, in the Yinxu 殷墟 period of the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1300–1050 b.c.e.), bronze clapper-bells were worn by dogs buried in tombs. We propose that their role there was a development of the earlier one; that is, they were used to contact the occupant's ancestral spirits as he was guided by the dog in the underworld.

Political and cultural complexity in north-west China during the Western Zhou Period (1045–771 BC): new evidence from Yaoheyuan

During the early first millennium BC, having deposed the Shang dynasty, the Western Zhou exerted power over large parts of China. Archaeologically, however, the Western Zhou are less well known than their predecessors in terms of north-west China. The site of Yaoheyuan is one of the most important recent discoveries of the Western Zhou period in north-west China. Investigations have revealed a walled urban centre, with high-status cemeteries and sacrificial pits, a palace complex, a bronze-casting foundry, pottery workshops and inscribed oracle bones. These unparalleled finds provide significant new evidence with which to examine the political and cultural landscape of north-west China and, more broadly, to reassess the relationships between centres and peripheries during the Chinese late Bronze Age.

Shang dynasty's “nine generations chaos” and the reign of Wu Ding: towards a unilineal line of transmission of royal power

AbstractThis article explores the political crisis before Wu Ding. The accession of king Wu Ding to the throne was not a given but the result of a political move by his father Xiao Yi. It must be seen as one of the consequences of an earlier political crisis named the “nine generations chaos” by Sima Qian, during which an attempt to share royal power between two royal lines finally collapsed and led to a move by Pan Geng to a new capital. This new city has recently been discovered north of the Huai river. The political crisis of the time led Shang kings to try to implement a unilineal system of succession. Other steps, ritual in particular, were involved after the reign of the king Zu Jia, one of the reigning sons of Wu Ding, in order to ensure the primacy of the unilineal system of royal succession.

甲骨文에 나타난 祭祀對象 중 功臣 伊尹 考察

Based on this question and idea, we can draw the following understanding.BR First, the Shang Dynasty people often worshiped ministers who had made great contributions to the Shang royal family, and sometimes along with other emperors or meritorious officials.BR Second, In the Shang Dynasty, a shrine was built to commemorate meritorious figures, where sacrifices were made.BR Third, The contributors of the Shang Dynasty had the ability to quell strong rain, rain or stop and harvest.BR Fourth, In the Shang Dynasty, sacrifices for meritorious people were mainly made by people, cattle, and sheep, and occasionally alcohol, clams, and grains were used.

PIXE and FCA study on the provenance of proto-porcelain of Xia and Shang Dynasty unearthed from Erlitou and Yinxu sites, China

For a long time, due to no finding of kiln site, there has always been controversy over the provenance of proto-porcelain unearthed in Northern China. Here, PIXE was used to determine the chemical compositions of proto-porcelain of Xia and Shang Dynasty unearthed from Erlitou and Yinxu sites as well as the kiln sites in Zhejiang Province. Compared with the samples from kilns, the provenance of proto-porcelain from Erlitou and Yinxu was studied by the self-developed FCA program. It is found that proto-porcelain of Xia Dynasty unearthed from Erlitou might not origin from Piaoshan kiln in Zhejiang, and that only a small part of proto-porcelain of Shang Dynasty unearthed from Yinxu might come from Huzhou and Deqing in Zhejiang, while the vast majority should have other sources. It provided a new and reliable analytical method for studying the provenance of ancient ceramics.

『詩經』 “彼其之子”에 대한 小考

Interpretations of “彼其之子” in The Book of Odes(詩經) have varied throughout the ages. Among “彼其之子”, the interpretation of the character ‘Qi(其)’ is at the center of controversy. There are three main views on ‘Qi(其)’. The first is the view that sees ‘Qi(其)’ as an auxiliary word and understands ‘ZhiZi(之子)’ as ‘this person(此子)’. However, this interpretation has a problem in that ‘that(彼)’ and ‘this(此)’ collide in meaning. The second is the view that ‘Qi(其)’ is a paired syllable demonstrative pronoun associated with ‘Bi(彼)’. However, judging from the grammatical habits of The Book of Odes, this view is also not appropriate, since ‘ZhiZi(之子)’ in “彼其之子” is interpreted as ‘a descendant of ~’. The third is the view of ‘Qi(其)’ as “family name or clan (姓氏)”. This view is persuasive enough based on archaeological data and literature. However, from this point of view, ‘Qi clan(其氏)’ is understood as a descendant of ‘Qi(㠱·其) clan’ in Shang(商) dynasty, but the ‘Qi clan (其氏)’, as a separate existence from ‘Qi(㠱·其) clan’ in Shang(商) dynasty, is understood as ‘Qi(㠱·其) clan’ in branch of Jiang(姜) family, arose in Western Zhou(西周) period and had a close relationship with the royal family of Zhou(周) and neighboring states of Ji(姬) family. This coincides with the appearance of “彼其之子” as an aristocratic ruling class in The Book of Odes.

Преемственность поколений, магия и институт власти в истории раннего Китая

It is foreseen that the emergence of culture has been a key factor in human evo­lutionary success. However, the richness of cultural forms and significant differ­ences between national cultures complicates the demarcation of cultural prac­tices and natural behavior. This leads to a blurring of the concept of culture and makes possible speculations on the concept of human nature under the slogans of returning to the natural state of human beings and canceling artificial restric­tions. Therefore, a clear understanding of the evolutionary continuity of the hu­man species along with the demarcation of human consciousness and self-iden­tity from their evolutionary predecessors is needed. The authors of this article continue the interdisciplinary study of consciousness and combine it with data from anthropology, history, and philosophy of the Chinese culture, which has been able to maintain uninterrupted continuity for more than three millennia. The most ancient magical practices of the Shang dynasty demonstrate a direct connection with some forms of prehistoric behavior, in which one should look for the foundations of the culture. Merging magic and state institutions under the leadership of the Shang clan caused the transformation of a mystical worldview into a system of more abstract philosophical concepts. The consequent develop­ment of this system in classical canons of the Zhou dynasty became the basis for the formation of the philosophy of the Changes, which reflects the most fun­damental principles of the Chinese culture. This research allows us to con­sider the historical development of culture on a concrete example and question the essence and future of human development.

Analysis of Lead Smelting Technology in the Early Bronze Age Based on Smelting Slag from the Central Plains of China

To explore the source of Pb in Bronze Age artefacts from the Central Plains (Zhongyuan) in China, we investigated non-ferrous minerals from the Qingyuan archaeological site in Yuanqu County near the Zhongtiao Mountains. Fragments of smelting slag from the Erlitou cultural layer were collected. The smelting slag was investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and lead isotope analysis. The SEM and EDS results confirmed that the slag contained Pb, Pb–As, and Cu–Pb–Sn inclusions and non-metal impurities such as low-Zn spinels. The XRD results signified that the bulk of the slag comprised Fe–Mn–Si phases. The chemical state of Pb was mainly Pb–O with some metallic Pb, as identified by XPS. The theoretical melting point was calculated using FactSage7.1 based on the composition and phase characterisation. The calculated temperature was 1100–1200 °C, which agreed well with the actual melting point of 1114–1354 °C. The slag composition and inclusion phases indicated that Pb–Zn–O ores with Mn and As were added during reduction smelting in Qingyuan. The raw materials of smelting included crude Pb with minor amounts of Cu, As, and Sn. Lead isotope analysis revealed that the lead materials produced in Qingyuan were likely transferred to Yanshi City in the Shang Dynasty. The findings of this study provide significant clues for exploring lead mineral production in the Central Plains during the Early Bronze Age.

Hydroclimatic variation over central China during the 4.2 ka event and its implications for cultural transformation

The 4.2 ka climate event, which marks the start of the late Holocene (Meghalayan), is linked to disruption to human cultures across a wide belt from the eastern Mediterranean to the Yangtze River Valley. Here we present a high-resolution stalagmite δ13C record for the middle Yangtze Valley from 4.4 to 3.0 ka BP, and identify two humid pulses and two dry episodes associated with the 4.2 ka event. Similar hydroclimate fluctuations associated with the 4.2 ka event also occur in the Chinese Loess Plateau and Central Plains of China, and may be at least partly responsible for the decline of the Neolithic culture in these regions. Although the 4.2 ka event marks the internationally recognised boundary between the middle and late Holocene, our stalagmite-based evidence shows that regime shift in hydrological variability occurred at ∼3.5 ka BP in the middle Yangtze Valley. Regime shift correlates with inflection points of temperature in the extratropical Northern Hemisphere and tropical El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) systems, indicating teleconnections between local and global climate change at this time. Following regime shift, precipitation fluctuated with a larger amplitude. Two dry events and one humid rebound event correspond to the early, late, and middle phases of the Shang Dynasty, respectively. In summary, we propose that frequent climatic alternations and their increased amplitudes impacted late Holocene cultural evolution in China.