Sham Training Group Research Articles

Cognitive Training Prevents Stress-Induced Working Memory Deficits

BackgroundWorking memory is a fundamental cognitive process that is critically involved in planning, comprehension, reasoning, and problem solving. Acute stress has been shown to impair working memory. This stress-induced working memory deficit has profound implications for cognitive functioning in everyday life as well as for stress-related mental disorders. Here, we tested whether a cognitive training intervention would make working memory more resistant to disruptive effects of acute stress. MethodsIn a preregistered, fully crossed between-subjects design with the factors stress (vs. control) and cognitive training (vs. sham), 123 healthy men and women (ages 18–35 years) completed a daily cognitive training program targeting working memory–related processes or a sham training over a period of 6 weeks. After this 6-week training intervention, participants underwent a standardized stress or control manipulation shortly before their working memory performance was tested. ResultsAs expected, the exposure to acute stress led to a significant working memory impairment in the sham training group. Critically, although the subjective, autonomic, and endocrine stress responses were comparable in the 2 training groups, this stress-induced working memory impairment was abolished in the intervention training group. ConclusionsThese results are the first to show that a cognitive training intervention directed at prefrontal and hippocampal functioning can prevent the detrimental effects of stressful events on working memory performance.

The effectiveness of cognitive bias modification in reducing substance use in detained juveniles: An RCT

Background and objectiveYoung offenders show high levels of substance use. Treatment programs within detention settings are less effective. Cognitive bias modification (CBM) is a promising supplement to substance use treatment. This study tests the effectiveness of CBM in young offenders to reduce cannabis and alcohol use, and delinquent recidivism. MethodA randomized controlled trial added CBM to treatment as usual (TAU), among 181 youth in juvenile detention centers. In a factorial design, participants were randomly assigned to either active- or sham-training for two varieties of CBM, targeting attentional-bias (AtB) and approach-bias (ApB) for their most used substance. Substance use was measured with the Alcohol and Cannabis Use Disorder Identification Tests. Delinquent recidivism was measured with the International Self-Report Delinquency (ISRD) survey. ResultsAt pretest, participants showed AtB but no ApB for both substances. For alcohol, a decrease was found in AtB in the active-training group. For cannabis, a decrease was found in AtB for both active- and sham-training groups. Regardless of condition, no effects were found on substance use or ISRD scores at follow-up. LimitationsThe sample is judicial, not clinical, as is the setting. TAU and participant goals are not necessarily substance related. ConclusionsYoung offenders show a significant attentional-bias towards substance cues. CBM changed attentional-biases but not substance use. Combining CBM with a motivational intervention is advised. Follow-up research should better integrate CBM with running treatment programs. New developments regarding CBM task design could be used that link training better to treatment.

Whole Body Vibration Training Improves Maximal Strength of the Knee Extensors, Time-to-Exhaustion and Attenuates Neuromuscular Fatigue

Whole-body vibration (WBV) training programs were reported to improve knee extensor muscle (KE) strength in healthy participants. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanisms of these strength gains remain unresolved. In addition, WBV training was shown to increase the time-to-exhaustion of a static submaximal endurance task. However, the effects of WBV training on neuromuscular fatigue (i.e., a decrease of the maximal voluntary isometric contraction; MVIC) induced by an endurance task is unknown. We, therefore, investigated the influence of WBV training on (i) KE MVIC and neuromuscular function, (ii) the time-to-exhaustion of the KE associated with a submaximal isometric fatiguing exercise, and (iii) KE neuromuscular fatigue and its etiology. Eighteen physically active males were assigned to a WBV group (n = 10) or a sham training group (SHAM; n = 8). The MVIC of the KE, voluntary activation, and electrically evoked responses of the KE were assessed (i) before and after a fatiguing exercise (i.e., submaximal isometric contraction) performed until failure, and (ii) before (PRE) and after a 6-week training (POST) period. At POST, the WBV training increased the KE MVIC (+12%, p = 0.001) and voluntary activation (+6%, p < 0.05) regardless of the fatiguing exercise. The time-to-exhaustion was also lengthened at POST in the WBV group (+34%, p < 0.001). Finally, the relative percentage of MVIC decrease after fatiguing exercises diminished in the WBV group between PRE and POST (−14% vs. −6%, respectively, p < 0.001). Significant neural adaptation enhancements account for the trend in KE strength improvements observed after the WBV training program. In addition, the WBV training was effective at increasing the time-to-exhaustion and attenuating neuromuscular fatigue.

Effect of Transversus abdominis muscle training on pressure-pain threshold in patients with chronic low Back pain

BackgroundTherapeutic training is the most commonly used treatment methods for chronic low back pain (CLBP), and the use of a pressure biofeedback unit for transversus abdominis muscle (TrA) training is one of the core muscle training methods. The study aim of this research is to explore the effects of different intensities (sham training, low-intensity and high-intensity) of TrA muscle training on people with CLBP in pressure-pain threshold (PPT).MethodsA total of 45 patients with CLBP were recruited, of whom 44 were included in the analysis. Fifteen, 14, and 15 were included in the sham training group, the low-intensity group, and the high-intensity group, respectively. A pressure biofeedback unit was used in performing a one-time TrA training intervention involving 30 times of 180 mmHg TrA contraction training at high intensity for 10 min and 15 times of 100 mmHg TrA contraction training at low intensity for 5 min. The sham training group completed comfort exercises and did not undergo training. The evaluation indicators were as follows: PPT, short-form McGill pain questionnaire, and body surface pain radiation.ResultsHigh-intensity training could activate more waist core muscles than low-intensity training. Significant changes on PPT (units: kgf) were observed in the following four muscles immediately after high-intensity training: iliopsoas [0.69 (0.13–1.25) 95% CI, p = 0.020]; quadratus lumborum [0.84 (0.23–1.45) 95% CI, p = 0.012]; erector spinae [0.66 (0.18–1.15) 95% CI, p = 0.011]; transversus abdominis [0.70 (0.26–1.14) 95% CI, p = 0.004], and in three muscles after low-intensity training: quadratus lumborum [0.61 (0.17–1.05) 95% CI, p = 0.009]; transversus abdominis [0.14 (from − 0.15 to 0.43) 95% CI, p = 0.022]; piriformis [0.55 (0.13–0.98) 95% CI, p = 0.014]. The change in body surface pain radiation immediately after exercise was [− 10.87 (from − 17.51 to − 4.22) 95% CI, p = 0.003] for high-intensity training and [− 5.21 (from − 9.40 to − 1.03) 95% CI, p = 0.019] for low-intensity training.ConclusionsTrA training could increase the PPT of the waist core muscles and reduce the radiation range of waist pain. The benefits of high-intensity training are higher than those of low-intensity training.Trial registrationChiCTR-TRC-13003701. Registered 18 October 2013.Code of ethical approval: 2018069.

A network-based cognitive training induces cognitive improvements and neuroplastic changes in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: an exploratory case-control study

Cognitive impairments are commonly observed in patients with multiple sclerosis and are associated with lower levels of quality of life. No consensus has been reached on how to tackle effectively cognitive decline in this clinical population non-pharmacologically. This exploratory case-control study aims to investigate the effectiveness of a hypothesis-based cognitive training designed to target multiple domains by promoting the synchronous co-activation of different brain areas and thereby improve cognition and induce changes in functional connectivity in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Forty-five patients (36 females and 9 males, mean age 44.62 ± 8.80 years) with clinically stable relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis were assigned to either a standard cognitive training or to control groups (sham training and non-active control). The standard training included twenty sessions of computerized exercises involving various cognitive functions supported by distinct brain networks. The sham training was a modified version of the standard training that comprised the same exercises and number of sessions but with increased processing speed load. The non-active control group received no cognitive training. All patients underwent comprehensive neuropsychological and magnetic resonance imaging assessments at baseline and after 5 weeks. Cognitive and resting-state magnetic resonance imaging data were analyzed using repeated measures models. At reassessment, the standard training group showed significant cognitive improvements compared to both control groups in memory tasks not specifically targeted by the training: the Buschke Selective Reminding Test and the Semantic Fluency test. The standard training group showed reductions in functional connectivity of the salience network, in the anterior cingulate cortex, associated with improvements on the Buschke Selective Reminding Test. No changes were observed in the sham training group. These findings suggest that multi-domain training that stimulates multiple brain areas synchronously may improve cognition in people with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis if sufficient time to process training material is allowed. The associated reduction in functional connectivity of the salience network suggests that training-induced neuroplastic functional reorganization may be the mechanism supporting performance gains. This study was approved by the Regional Ethics Committee of Yorkshire and Humber (approval No. 12/YH/0474) on November 20, 2013.

The Effects of Training to Reduce Automatic Action Tendencies Toward Alcohol Using the Virtual Alcohol Approach-Avoidance Task in Heavy Social Drinkers.

This study aimed to reduce the approach tendency toward alcohol among heavy social drinkers using the Virtual Alcohol Approach-Avoidance Training Task training. A total of 28 heavy social drinkers were randomly assigned to either the training group (n = 14) or the control group (n = 14). The training group was implicitly trained to avoid situations that involved drinking alcohol and to approach situations that involved drinking nonalcoholic beverages. On the other hand, the control group received a sham training condition with the same ratio of approach or avoidance of drinking either alcohol or a nonalcoholic beverage. All participants made three visits in a period of 2-3 weeks to participate in either the training or sham training. As a result, the training group showed a decrease in implicit approach tendencies toward alcohol, but not in explicit craving for alcohol. In contrast, the control group showed an increase in both implicit approach tendencies and explicit craving toward alcohol. These results indicate that the virtual reality training to avoid alcohol-related stimuli or environments might reduce automatic action tendencies toward alcohol, while simply being exposed to alcohol-related stimuli or environments might increase craving for alcohol in the sham training group. Our findings also suggest that, including not only visual stimuli but also auditory stimuli in a virtual environment might be a tool for changing approach bias.

Does attention bias modification training impact on task performance in the context of pain: An experimental study in healthy participants.

Attention has been theorized to play a key role in the experience of pain and associated task interference. Training attention away from pain via attention bias modification (ABM) training techniques has been proposed to improve pain-related outcomes, but evidence is inconsistent. In an experimental study, we investigated the impact of a single session ABM training -using a visual probe paradigm with idiosyncratic pain words- on cold pressor test (CPT) pain experience and task interference by pain. Fifty-eight healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to an ABM training group (N = 28; attending away from pain) and a sham training group (N = 30; no training direction). At pre-training, participants performed a baseline Random-Interval-Repetition (RIR) task and the CPT. Participants reported on sensations they experienced during the baseline CPT. Relevant descriptors were integrated in the visual probe paradigm during the training phase. At post-training, participants completed the RIR task again while experiencing CPT pain. Participants also reported on the extent they attended to the pain and the intensity/unpleasantness of the pain. Results indicated that, in contrast with our hypotheses, ABM training did also not reduce task interference due to CPT pain. Furthermore, ABM training did not change self-reported attending to CPT pain. Finally, ABM training did not reduce CPT pain intensity or pain unpleasantness. Overall, the current study provides no support for the effectiveness of a single session ABM training in improving pain-related outcomes. Future research addressing the conditions under which ABM training improves or fails to improve pain-related outcomes is warranted.

Influence of Inspiratory Muscle Training on Sympatho‐excitation in Healthy Young Adults

Inspiratory muscle training (IMT) lowers blood pressure in healthy young adults and adults with obstructive sleep apnea (Vranish & Bailey, 2015; 2016). Importantly, in healthy young adults, 6 weeks IMT also is associated with significant declines in systemic vascular resistance (Delucia et al. 2017). In light of these outcomes, in the current study we test the hypothesis that 6 weeks IMT reduces sympathetic outflow. Accordingly, we recruited healthy college‐aged students and randomly allocated them to either IMT or to Sham training groups. At intake (Week 1) and study completion (Week 6) we recorded MSNA as subjects performed sympatho‐excitatory challenges as follows: Valsalva maneuver, Mueller maneuver, submaximal grip test, cold pressor test, and mental stress tests (Stroop and mental arithmetic). Additionally, we performed weekly (blinded) assessments of systolic and diastolic blood pressures (SBP and DBP), and assessed maximal inspiratory pressure and respiratory function. Our preliminary results indicate subjects in the IMT group have lowered systolic (114.3 ± 3.4 mmHg vs. 106.7 ± 1.8 mmHg, p=0.0115) and diastolic (68.39 ± 1.58 mmHg vs. 63.5 ± 0.97 mmHg, p=0.0413) blood pressures relative to Sham trained subjects (SBP 114.7 ± 2.94 mmHg vs. 108.9 ± 1.34 mmHg and DBP 72.47 ± 3.29 mmHg vs. 69.99 ± 1.75 mmHg). Consistent with our hypothesis, preliminary analyses highlight lowered sympathetic burst frequency in the IMT group during Valsalva maneuvers (Week 1:15 ± 2.2 bursts per 15 seconds vs. Week 6: 11 ± 1.5 bursts per 15 seconds) as compared to Sham trained subjects (Week 1:12.13 ± 1.48 bursts per 15 seconds vs. Week 6:11.63 ± 0.83 bursts per 15 seconds). Data collection is ongoing however, our early findings show a reduction in sympathetic outflow during respiratory challenges which may underpin declines in peripheral resistance and blood pressure seen in healthy young adults following IMT.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported by start up monies awarded to EFB.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Retraining of automatic action tendencies in individuals with obesity: A randomized controlled trial

Obesity is a major health concern, characterized by an automatically activated tendency to (over)-eat. Recent research suggests that an effective way to counteract automatic approach tendencies in unhealthy consumption behavior might be approach bias modification. Therefore, we investigated an approach-avoidance training for unhealthy food cues in 189 patients with obesity of a psychosomatic inpatient clinic who were participating in a nutrition advice program. Patients in the active training group were trained to make avoidance movements (pushing a joystick) in response to unhealthy food pictures and approach movements (pulling the joystick) in response to positive pictures, while the control group received sham training (approaching and avoiding both picture types). Approach-avoidance bias, body mass index, eating pathology and food-specific implicit associations were assessed before and after the training. In line with our hypothesis, approach-avoidance bias improved in the active training group after the training, in comparison to the sham training group. Moreover, this effect generalized to new, untrained stimuli. However, no effects of the training were found in a food-specific Single-Target Implicit Association Test, or on eating pathology questionnaires or body mass index. While the training results are promising, the effect of approach-avoidance bias modification on relevant behavior in obesity has yet to be established before it may be implemented as an add-on treatment.

Interventions for eye movement disorders due to acquired brain injury.

Interventions for eye movement disorders due to acquired brain injury.

Eye-Tracking Based Attention Bias Modification (ET-ABM) Facilitates Disengagement from Negative Stimuli in Dysphoric Individuals

To address shortcomings of purely reaction-time based attention bias modification (ABM) paradigms, a novel eye-tracking based ABM training (ET-ABM) was developed. This training targets the late disengagement from negative stimuli and the lack of attention for positive information, which are characteristics of depression. In the present study, 75 dysphoric students (BDI ≥ 9) were randomly assigned to either this positive training (PT), or a sham-training (ST) that did not train any valence-specific gaze pattern (positive and negative pictures had to be disengaged from and attended to equally often). Results showed that the PT induced a positive attentional bias (longer fixations of positive than negative pictures). Although the ST group showed an increase in positive attentional bias as well, this increase was not as strong as in the PT group. Compared to the ST, the PT specifically induced faster disengagement from negative pictures. No differential training effects were found on stress responses or state rumination. These results show that the ET-ABM successfully modifies attentional processes, specifically late disengagement from negative stimuli, in dysphoric students, and hence might be a promising alternative to existing ABM paradigms.

Daily inspiratory muscle training lowers blood pressure and vascular resistance in healthy men and women.

What is the central question of this study? What impact does inspiratory muscle training have on systemic vascular resistance, cardiac output and baroreflex sensitivity in adult men and women? What is the main finding and its importance? Inspiratory muscle training exerts favorable effects on blood pressure, vascular resistance and perception of stress. This exercise format is well-tolerated and equally effective whether implemented in men or women. Previous work has shown that inspiratory muscle training (IMT) lowers blood pressure after a mere 6weeks, identifying IMT as a potential therapeutic intervention to prevent or treat hypertension. Here, we explore the effects of IMT on respiratory muscle strength and select cardiovascular parameters in recreationally active men and women. Subjects were randomly assigned to IMT (n=12, 75% maximal inspiratory pressure) or sham training (n=13, 15% maximal inspiratory pressure) groups and underwent a 6-week intervention comprising 30breathsday-1 , 5daysweek-1 . Pre- and post-training measures included maximal inspiratory pressure and resting measures of blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate, spontaneous cardiac baroreflex sensitivity and systemic vascular resistance. We evaluated psychological and sleep status via administration of the Cohen-Hoberman inventory of physical symptoms and the Epworth sleepiness scale. Male and female subjects in the IMT group showed declines in systolic/diastolic blood pressures (-4.3/-3.9mmHg, P<0.025) and systemic vascular resistance (-3.5mmHgminl-1 , P=0.008) at week 6. There was no effect of IMT on cardiac output (P=0.722), heart rate (P=0.795) or spontaneous cardiac baroreflex sensitivity (P=0.776). The IMT subjects also reported fewer stress-related symptoms (pre- versus post-training, 12.5±8.5 versus 7.2±9.7, P=0.025). Based on these results, we suggest that a short course of IMT confers significant respiratory and cardiovascular improvements and parallel (modest) psychological benefits in healthy men and women.

Six Weeks Inspiratory Muscle Strength Training Lowers Blood Pressure but Does Not Affect Baroreflex Sensitivity or Cardiac Output in Active Young Adults

We showed previously that inspiratory muscle strength training (IMST) lowers resting blood pressure in healthy, college‐aged adults (Vranish and Bailey 2015) and in adults with obstructive sleep apnea (Vranish and Bailey 2016). However, the mechanism underlying IMST‐related declines in blood pressure is unclear. Here, we explore the potential for IMST to modulate baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), cardiac output and /or heart rate in healthy young (19.9±0.3 years) adults (13 men, 12 women). Subjects were randomly assigned to IMST (n=12; 75% maximal inspiratory pressure) or sham training (n=13; 15% maximal inspiratory pressure) groups and underwent 6 weeks of training (30 breaths/day, 5 days/week). Pre‐ and post‐training measures included blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate, BRS, and maximal inspiratory pressure. Additionally, all subjects completed the Cohen‐Hoberman inventory of physical symptoms survey and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Subjects in the IMST group exhibited significant declines in systolic (112.51±2.99 mmHg vs 108.25±3.72 mmHg, p=0.022) and diastolic blood pressures (67.73±2.45 mmHg vs 63.83±2.83 mmHg, p=0.018) whereas resting blood pressures in sham trained subjects were unchanged. IMST trained subjects reported significantly fewer physical symptoms pre vs post training (p=0.025) relative to sham trained individuals (p=0.135). There was no effect on cardiac output (p=0.722), heart rate (p=0.795), or BRS (p=0.776) pre vs post training for either group however, muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) recorded in four subjects highlights reduced sympathetic nerve traffic in IMST (25.0±6.0 vs 18.5±2.5 bursts/min) relative to sham‐trained (23.6±10.5 vs 23.0±10.0 bursts/min) subjects. Changes in central and /or other reflex modulation of MSNA may underpin IMST related reductions in mean arterial pressure in active young adults.

Exercise Effects on Early Vocal Ultrasonic Communication Dysfunction in a PINK1 Knockout Model of Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease with vocal communication deficits that manifest early, progress, and are largely resistant to medical interventions; however, they do respond to exercise-based speech and voice therapies. To study how exercise-based vocal treatment can affect the progression of communication deficits related to PD, we studied ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in rats with homozygous knockout (-/-) of PINK1, a gene mutation known to cause PD, under the manipulation of a behavioral vocal exercise paradigm that allows us to precisely control dose and timing of exercise in the prodromal (prior to diagnosis) stages. We show that intensive vocal-training rescues frequency range and intensity deficits as well as leads to an increase in call complexity and duration of calls compared to sham-training; however, over time this training regime loses significant effect as the disease progresses. We also show effects of frequent handling and conspecific (male-female) interaction in the sham-training group as they demonstrated significantly higher call rate, intensity, frequency range, and call complexity compared to rats without any form of training and consequently less handling/interaction. Further, we confirm that this model exhibits progressive gross motor deficits that indicate neurodegeneration. This study suggests that the evolving nature of vocal communication deficits requires an adjustment of therapy targets and more intensive training over the course of this progressive disease and demonstrates the importance of frequent social experiences.

Processing speed and working memory training in multiple sclerosis: A double-blind randomized controlled pilot study

Between 40–65% of multiple sclerosis patients experience cognitive deficits, with processing speed and working memory most commonly affected. This pilot study investigated the effect of computerized cognitive training focused on improving processing speed and working memory. Participants were randomized into either an active or a sham training group and engaged in six weeks of training. The active training group improved on a measure of processing speed and attention following cognitive training, and data trended toward significance on measures of other domains. Results provide preliminary evidence that cognitive training with multiple sclerosis patients may produce moderate improvement in select areas of cognitive functioning.

Effects of cognitive bias modification training on neural alcohol cue reactivity in alcohol dependence.

In alcohol-dependent patients, alcohol cues evoke increased activation in mesolimbic brain areas, such as the nucleus accumbens and the amygdala. Moreover, patients show an alcohol approach bias, a tendency to more quickly approach than avoid alcohol cues. Cognitive bias modification training, which aims to retrain approach biases, has been shown to reduce alcohol craving and relapse rates. The authors investigated effects of this training on cue reactivity in alcohol-dependent patients. In a double-blind randomized design, 32 abstinent alcohol-dependent patients received either bias modification training or sham training. Both trainings consisted of six sessions of the joystick approach-avoidance task; the bias modification training entailed pushing away 90% of alcohol cues and 10% of soft drink cues, whereas this ratio was 50/50 in the sham training. Alcohol cue reactivity was measured with functional MRI before and after training. Before training, alcohol cue-evoked activation was observed in the amygdala bilaterally, as well as in the right nucleus accumbens, although here it fell short of significance. Activation in the amygdala correlated with craving and arousal ratings of alcohol stimuli; correlations in the nucleus accumbens again fell short of significance. After training, the bias modification group showed greater reductions in cue-evoked activation in the amygdala bilaterally and in behavioral arousal ratings of alcohol pictures, compared with the sham training group. Decreases in right amygdala activity correlated with decreases in craving in the bias modification but not the sham training group. These findings provide evidence that cognitive bias modification affects alcohol cue-induced mesolimbic brain activity. Reductions in neural reactivity may be a key underlying mechanism of the therapeutic effectiveness of this training.

Working-memory training: effects on delay discounting in male Long Evans rats.

Delay discounting describes the devaluation of a reward as the delay to the receipt of the reward increases. Because steep delay discounting is robustly correlated with a number of behavioral problems (e.g., substance dependence, gambling) and some evidence suggests steep discounting precedes and predicts drug-taking in humans and rats, this study sought to experimentally reduce rats' delay discounting. Human stimulant-dependent participants given working-memory training reportedly decreased their rates of discounting relative to a sham-training group (Bickel, Yi, Landes, Hill, & Baxter, 2011). To evaluate the cross-species generality of this effect, 38 male Long-Evans rats, matched on pretraining delay-discounting rates, were randomly assigned to receive 140 sessions of working-memory training or sham training (which required no memory of the sample stimulus). Large between-group differences in working memory were observed after training; however, posttraining delay-discounting rates were undifferentiated across groups. Potential explanations for these findings are discussed.

Training Ruminators to Inhibit Negative Information: A Preliminary Report

Although depression and rumination have been associated with a difficulty ignoring irrelevant negative content, the causal direction of this relationship is unclear. The aim of this study was to train individuals who engage in habitual brooding, a particularly maladaptive subtype of rumination, to inhibit or to attend to negative stimuli. The effects of the training on rumination and depression were examined. Participants were randomly assigned to four sessions of training to inhibit or to attend to negative stimuli or to a sham-training group, in a two-week span. At both pre and post training, participants completed measures of depressive symptoms, rumination and inhibition bias. Compared with individuals in the sham training condition, those who were trained to attend to negative stimuli exhibited a significant decrease in inhibition of irrelevant negative content whereas those who were trained to inhibit negative stimuli, showed a trend toward improved inhibition of irrelevant negative content and a reduction in brooding, but not in depressive symptoms. Our findings suggest that inhibition training may be beneficial for reducing brooding.

Optimal whole-body vibration settings for muscle strength and power enhancement in human knee extensors

This study compared the effects of 6-week whole-body vibration (WBV) training programs with different frequency and peak-to-peak displacement settings on knee extensor muscle strength and power. The underlying mechanisms of the expected gains were also investigated. Thirty-two physically active male subjects were randomly assigned to a high-frequency/high peak-to-peak displacement group (HH; n = 12), a low-frequency/low peak-to-peak displacement group (LL; n = 10) or a sham training group (SHAM; n = 10). Maximal voluntary isometric, concentric and eccentric torque of the knee extensors, maximal voluntary isometric torque of the knee flexors, jump performance, voluntary muscle activation, and contractile properties of the knee extensors were assessed before and after the training period. Significant improvement in knee extensor eccentric voluntary torque ( P < 0.01), knee flexor isometric voluntary torque ( P < 0.05), and jump performance ( P < 0.05) was observed only for HH group. Regardless of the group, knee extensor muscle contractile properties ( P < 0.05) were enhanced. No modification was observed for voluntary muscle activation or electrical activity of agonist and antagonist muscles. We concluded that high-frequency/high peak-to-peak displacement was the most effective vibration setting to enhance knee extensor muscle strength and jump performance during a 6-week WBV training program and that these improvements were not mediated by central neural adaptations.

Expiratory Muscle Training in Spinal Cord Injury: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Roth EJ, Stenson KW, Powley S, Oken J, Primack S, Nussbaum SB, Berkowitz M. Expiratory muscle training in spinal cord injury: a randomized controlled trial. Objective To assess the effectiveness of expiratory muscle training on the pulmonary function of spinal cord injured patients. Design Randomized controlled trial. Setting Acute inpatient rehabilitation hospital. Participants Patients (N=29, 22 men and 7 women) with recent traumatic, motor complete, spinal cord injury (SCI) at or above level T1 consecutively admitted to an SCI rehabilitation service. Subjects were randomized to either resistance training (n=16) or sham training (n=13). Interventions The subjects completed either sham training or expiratory muscle resistive training with maximal expiratory force using a small handheld device, which is a tube with an aperture at the distal end, for 10 repetitions twice a day 5 days a week for a total of 6 weeks. Main Outcome Measures Pulmonary function tests were measured before and after the training program and included forced vital capacity (FVC); forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1); maximum expiratory pressure (MEP), which is often referred to as forced expiratory pressure; maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP), which is often referred to as negative inspiratory force; inspiratory capacity (IC); expiratory reserve volume (ERV); total lung capacity (TLC); functional residual capacity (FRC); and residual volume (RV). Results FVC, FEV1, and ERV improved in both groups. Although exit values of MEP were improved in both groups compared with entry values, this increase was statistically significant only in the resistance training group. No significant improvements occurred in IC, TLC, FRC, or RV from entry to exit. MIP improved in both groups, but this increase was statistically significant only in the resistance training group. There was also a significant between-group difference in MEP exit values (98cmH 2O for the resistance training group and 59cmH 2O for the sham training group, t=3.45, P=.002). Multivariate analyses failed to reveal significant effects of treatment for any of the pulmonary function tests. Conclusions The resistance training group had significantly greater exit MEP values than the sham training group in univariate analysis only. However, improvements in pulmonary function were noted in both the resistance training and sham training groups. Although multivariate analysis failed to reveal a significant difference between groups, these findings offer some indication that expiratory training may benefit people with SCI.