Shallow Cave Research Articles

Mixed occupation during the Middle Palaeolithic: Case study of a small pit-cave-site of Les Pêcheurs (Ardèche, south-eastern France)

The Pêcheurs cave is a unique example of a Middle Palaeolithic site with three kinds of accumulations: (1) ibex that died in a natural trap, (2) carnivores that died within the cavity, and, (3) a series of short-term occupations by humans who left a few artifacts and a hearth area. Biological patterns of ibex remains (skeletal parts, age) show a homogeneous structure, related to natural death inside the cave. The Chassezac valley is narrow and sinuous, bordered by steep cliffs occupied by well-adapted hoofed-species ( Caprinae). Moreover, Les Pêcheurs is a shallow cave, pit-like, and in its deepest part (Sector 4) provided both man and animals with shelter. The presence of a fire place (in the middle of the sequence of Sector 4) firmly indicates the presence of an in situ occupation by a small group of hominids. According to the stratigraphical patterns and the analysis of the lithic assemblages, artifacts do not seem to have been introduced into sediments. The lithic assemblages (technically homogeneous) indicate that small mobile human groups inhabited a cave that offered, by virtue of its morphology, a natural shelter against the cold winds blowing in the Chassezac valley and the plateaus of the south-eastern borders of the Massif Central Mountains. The exploitation of biotopes such as this rocky area constitutes a specific case of human subsistence behavior and settlement strategy. The deepest layer is characterized by a lithic assemblage mostly made of local raw material (quartz) implying a low investment in lithic production. Few flakes made from non-local flints attest to the mobility of the human occupants who moved across these areas and perhaps found in the valleys, short-term refuge.

Descriptions of two new species of Cyrtodactylus Gray 1827 (Squamata : Gekkonidae) endemic to southern Vietnam

Two new species of the gekkonid lizard genus Cyrtodactylus Gray, 1827 are described on the basis of voucher specimens collected in isolated mountains separated from the Truong Son Mountain Range, southern Vietnam. Both species were collected from shallow caves, as have been many of the recently described Cyrtodactylus from across Southeast Asia. Both species, C. takouensis sp. nov. from Ta Kou Nature Reserve, Binh Thuan Province and C. huynhi sp. nov. from Chua Chan Mountain, Dong Nai Province, are characterized by a small number of enlarged femoral scales separated from the precloacal scales by a large diastema. They may be distinguished from one another and from all other congeners by differences in rows of tubercles and ventral scales, subcaudal scalation and dorsal color pattern. These new taxa bring the number of currently recognized Cyrtodactylus species in Vietnam to twelve.

Natural hazards vs human impact: an integrated methodological approach in geomorphological risk assessment on the Tursi historical site, Southern Italy

The Tursi–Rabatana historical site is very representative of the cultural heritage of Basilicata, Southern Italy. Morphological evolution of the landscape is characterized by very intense erosive phenomena such as landslides, deep gullies, rills, and piping, which affect the perimeter of urban settlements and threaten the conservation of these sites. Rainfalls and the lithology of the substratum are the main factors to which the landscape evolution is linked, triggering landslide and linear erosion phenomena. Climate analysis carried out during the last century showed an increasing trend in the rainfall intensity over extremely short periods. This condition also induced an increase in the vulnerability level of the slopes. Integrated analysis between territorial data (geology, geomorphology, climate) and historical documents showed that, at least from the last century, the geomorphological hazard has been accentuated by the intense human activity of cave excavation along several fronts under the present urban area. The geophysical investigation also permitted the mapping of shallow caves and tunnels in the subsurface reconstructing the multilevel complex hypogeal system. This work also produced evidence that the human interventions occurring during the historical period have been a determining factor in increasing the hazard level and accelerating the preexisting morphological processes.

A Mesolithic Landscape in Greece

A survey was conducted in southern Greece in 2003 to test a predictive Mesolithic site-location model. We selected the coastal region of Kandia in the Argolid because the present shoreline is near the position of the early Holocene shoreline (c. 9,000 to 10,500 Cal BP). Marine transgression brought the shoreline near its present position by 9,000 Cal BP, flooding low-lying areas and creating a dynamic system of wetlands fed by springs and rivers. Our model predicted that Mesolithic sites were preferentially associated with freshwater wetlands in coastal zones, especially those areas that have small caves and rockshelters (shallow caves formed by overhangs of rock) that provided shelter and had optimal access to plants and animals at the intersection of woodland and aquatic habitats. Suitable caves and rockshelters (i.e. those large enough to have sheltered small bands of humans) were searched in an area of approximately 30 sq. km. Twenty-one sites with 1,713 associated lithic artifacts were recorded, 15 of which with microlithic assemblages of Mesolithic type are sites at the intersection between the higher elevations of the hinterland and the coastal wetlands. We interpret these Mesolithic sites as special activity sites or seasonally occupied residential sites that were part of a larger territory around the Argolic Gulf exploited by groups of foragers. This model is useful for the detection of Mesolithic sites in the eastern Mediterranean where similar environmental conditions existed in the early Holocene.

In situ measurement of seasonal δ18O variations and analysis of isotopic trends in a modern speleothem from southwest Australia

We present a record of seasonal and inter-annual oxygen ( δ 18O) and carbon ( δ 13C) isotope ratios from an 81-year-old stalagmite from Moondyne Cave, southwest Australia. The growth history of stalagmite MND-S1 is known since it grew on a cave boardwalk that was installed in 1911 and removed in 1992. This stalagmite provides an excellent test of speleothem climate proxies because the regional climate is strongly seasonal (wet winter/dry summer) and has experienced a 200 mm (20%) reduction of mean rainfall since the mid-1960s, and a 0.8 °C temperature rise since ∼ 1953. Seasonal variations in calcite δ 18O were measured in situ by high spatial resolution ion microprobe, whilst inter-annual variations of δ 18O and δ 13C were measured by conventional gas-source mass spectrometry. Comparison of the speleothem stable isotopes and instrumental temperature records reveals that δ 18O variations are too large to be driven by temperature alone, and are in the opposite sense. However, daily rainfall δ 18O measurements show that the mean seasonal range in δ 18O of rainfall in southwest Australia is large (2‰) and inversely correlated with rainfall amount. A rainfall driver for the speleothem δ 18O is confirmed by the detection of seasonal shifts of 0.7–1.5‰ in speleothem δ 18O that track rainfall δ 18O, smoothed by storage in the overlying limestone. The seasonal range in speleothem δ 18O is larger than any inter-annual and decadal variation observed in the record. The prominent annual cycles in speleothem δ 18O revealed by ion microprobe analysis indicate that subtle changes in the frequency of intense winter rainfall events, or possibly also moisture sources, could produce significant changes in mean speleothem δ 18O. The ion microprobe results also raise the possibility that the masses of speleothem calcite deposited in winter and summer could vary as a function of the seasonal drip rate and carbonate saturation state of these waters. If this is the case, then small changes in the relative masses of calcite deposited in winter and summer could produce significant shifts in mean δ 18O and δ 13C that have a complex relation to climate. This finding should be generally applicable to the interpretation of long-term trends in speleothem geochemical records for shallow cave sites where seasonal variations in geochemical tracers are relatively large, including most of the sub-tropical monsoon belts and mid to high latitudes with distinct rainfall seasons.

Changes in morphology and physiology of an East Mediterranean sponge in different habitats

The sponge Tetilla sp. (Tetractinomorpha: Tetillidae) is a common species in the eastern Mediter- ranean. This sponge inhabits four different habitat types differing in wave impact and irradiance levels. Two of these habitats (a shallow cave and deep water) are characterized by relatively calm water, whereas the other two (shallow exposed site and tide pools) are in turbu- lent water with high energy flow. The present study examined the influence of physical (depth, illumination and water motion) and biotic factors on morphology, skeletal plasticity and reproductive traits among the four spatially separated populations. Sponges from tidal pools had significantly larger body volume than sponges from deep water and from shallow caves (ANOVA: tidal-deep P<0.0001; tidal-shallow caves P<0.05). Sponges from exposed habitats were significantly larger than deep-water sponges (ANOVA: P=0.01). In addi- tion, individuals from tide pools and from the exposed habitat had a significantly higher proportion of struc- tural silica than sponges from the calmer deep water and from the cave sites. Oxea spicules in sponges from the calm habitats were significantly shorter than in those from the tidal pools and the exposed habitats. The percentage of spicules out of a sponge's dry weight in individuals transplanted from deep (calm) to shallow (turbulent) water significantly increased by 21.9±12.9%. The new spicule percentage did not differ significantly from that of sponges originally from shal- low water. Oocyte diameter differed significantly be- tween habitats. The maximal size of mature eggs was found in deep-water sponges in June (97±5 lm). In the shallow habitats, a smaller maximal oocyte diameter was found in the cave, in May (56.5±3 lm). Furthermore, oocyte density in shallow-water sponges was highest in May and decreased in June (with 88.2±9 and 19.3±9 oocytes mm 2 , respectively). At the same time (June), oocyte density of deep-water sponges had just reached its maximum (155±33.7 oocytes mm 2 ). The difference in oocyte size and density between deep- and shallow-water individuals indicates an earlier gamete release in the shallow sponge population. The results suggest that plasticity in skeletal design of this sponge indicates a trade off between spicule production and investment in reproduction.

The 2002–2003 El Niño recorded in Australian cave drip waters: Implications for reconstructing rainfall histories using stalagmites

A 30‐month study of drip hydrochemistry from Kooringa Cave, eastern Australia, revealed a clear geochemical response to the 2002–2003 El Niño. Through the drought, drip discharge fell to base flow, drip Ca2+ concentrations fell by half and drip Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca increased in a co‐varying pattern. Calcite Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca predicted from drip waters displayed a marked increase through, and just beyond, the period of greatest moisture deficit. The results suggest that stalagmites from shallow caves in drought‐sensitive eastern Australia potentially preserve a valuable record of El Niño‐La Niña history.

Palaeoclimatic interpretation of high-resolution oxygen isotope profiles derived from annually laminated speleothems from Southern Oman

High-resolution stable isotope profiles of three contemporaneously deposited stalagmites from a shallow cave in Southern Oman provide an annually resolved record of Indian Ocean monsoon rainfall variability for the past 780 years. Uranium-series age dating and counts of annual growth bands enable an excellent age calibration. Although modern speleothems do not grow in perfect isotopic equilibrium, oxygen isotope ratios (δ 18O) are a proxy for the amount of monsoon rainfall. This is supported by the statistically significant correlation between δ 18O and the thickness of annual bands, whereas δ 18O is inversely correlated with annual band thickness. Additionally, overlapping δ 18O profiles are very similar in pattern and range, indicating that sample specific noise did not blur the climatic signal. The longest oxygen isotope profile, derived from stalagmite S3, clearly shows the transition at ∼1320 AD from a generally wetter Medieval Warm Period to a drier Little Ice Age that lasted from approximately AD 1320–1660 in Southern Oman. The decrease in monsoon rainfall since the 1960s is also obvious in meteorological records from Northern Africa and India, indicating that our speleothem-based rainfall records do not only reflect local monsoon rainfall variability.

Distribution patterns of the cardinal fish, Apogon imberbis, in shallow marine caves in southern Apulia (SE Italy)

Distribution patterns of the sciaphilic cardinal fish, Apogon imberbis, were investigated by visual census in southern Apulia (SE Italy, Mediterranean Sea) in three shallow marine caves. Sampling was carried out in four periods, from July 2000 to June 2001 and A. imberbis was always found in large numbers inside all three caves. Density values ranged from a few to more than 1800 individuals 100 m‐2. Great numbers of juveniles, about 1 cm long, with a reddish‐transparent livery and grouped in large schools, were found in July 2000 in the three caves. Adult A. imberbis were fairly evenly distributed in time, among caves, as well as within each cave along the axis; recruitment appeared to be the most important process affecting temporal changes in total abundance of A. imberbis. The present study thus showed that marine caves represent important nurseries for recruiting of A. imberbis, as well as the preferred habitat for adults. The fact that A. imberbis may reach such high densities inside marine caves supports the hypothesis that this fish could play a relevant ecological role in the daily transfer of organic matter into these environments, an issue deserving further research.

Integration of ground-penetrating radar and microgravimetric methods to map shallow caves

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and microgravimetric surveys have been conducted in the southern Jura mountains of western Switzerland in order to map subsurface karstic features. The study site, La Grande Rolaz cave, is an extensive system in which many portions have been mapped. By using small station spacing and careful processing for the geophysical data, and by modeling these data with topographic information from within the cave, accurate interpretations have been achieved. The constraints on the interpreted geologic models are better when combining the geophysical methods than when using only one of the methods, despite the general limitations of two-dimensional (2D) profiling. For example, microgravimetry can complement GPR methods for accurately delineating a shallow cave section approximately 10×10 m 2 in size. Conversely, GPR methods can be complementary in determining cavity depths and in verifying the presence of off-line features and numerous areas of small cavities and fractures, which may be difficult to resolve in microgravimetric data.

Seasonal variability in organic substances in surface and cave waters at Marengo Cave, Indiana

Water samples from forest soils and a shallow cave underlying them were collected for the hydrological year 1996–1997. The soil waters did not display much seasonal variability in concentrations of organic substances in them but the cave waters yielded distinct highest levels in the spring and autumn seasons. The important controls on the amount of organic substances reaching the cave are the seasonal fluctuation in volume of the percolation waters and the soil's ability to provide organic material for these waters. Fluorescence studies of the organic compounds isolated from these waters revealed shorter peak excitation and emission wavelengths for the cave waters than for the soil waters, a result of both differences in concentration and probably also of significant change in the proportional organic assemblages in the waters. Precipitation appears to affect the fluorescence in both waters, with the dry autumn producing the highest yields. Molecular size fractionation revealed how the larger hydrophobic compounds are preferentially removed from the water before it reaches the cave, with the consequence that the smaller hydrophilic compounds become the dominant fluorophore there. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Appalachian Winter

Appalachian Winter Pam Shingler Ask most any Appalachian what season sets the heart's sap to running, what time of year in these tight-knit hills brings a lilt to the twang, and he'll probably shuffle his feet a little, fold his arms in a self-hug, and wax mushy over one of three. If he chooses spring, he'll talk about the myriad of greens that vie for attention on the hills, the new leaves and all of the possibilities between yellow and blue, dappled with purple redbud and white sarvis. Ifanother mountaineer opts for fall, she might rave over the violence of the red spectrum, flush against a blinding blue sky. From lemon to gold, from cerise to orange, the palette is passionate and portentous. Those who prefer summer cite the season's sensual bombardment: the scent of honeysuckle and wild rose, the sound of doves and bluebirds , the taste of tomatoes and blackberries, the sight of daylilies and daisies, the touch of bare feet on soft grass, the feeling of rightness. Hardly anyone, whether born or brought on, likes winter in the hills. On gray days, there is an absence of color. Snow and ice cripple movement . Roadside ditches and creek banks double as wastebaskets for vending machines and fast food restaurants. The kaleidoscope muddies, the passion wanes, the touch bristles. Perhaps I am the exception. Winter to me is the most sublime season in Appalachia. Of course, I relish the beauties of the other seasons. I'm a sucker for spring's enticements. I warm up to summer's opulence. I marvel at autumn's vibrance. But still I savor the openness, the truth, yes, even the duplicity of winter. I have always liked looking at old photos of mountain ancestors. Appalachian Gothic—Great-Grandpa with one hand on his shotgun and the other on big-bellied Mammaw's shoulder. The winter hills are akin to those sepia-toned photos. The colors are not what we think of when we say color. The sky, often as not, is off-white. The trees wear the sameness of brown. The crags are dark gray or dull army green. It's the black and white that is neither black nor white, but rather gradations of gray, which, Fm inclined to argue, is the true essence of life. A native ofPaintsville, Kentucky, Pam Shingler now serves as developmental director for the David School in Floyd County, Kentucky, and lives at Williamsport in rural Johnson County. 12 It is in this picture that I see the hills as they really are. Not the erose, blanketed outline that tree foliage lends, but the stark reality. The hills reveal themselves like a shaved head, where you see all the bumps and rolls, the highs and lows, the dips and protrusions. The trees, then, are hairy stubble, erratically grown. Or better, consider the hills as a rock wall, the stones settled to unevenness with the passage of time, ancient, perhaps noble. The trees standing on the wall are sentries, guarding within and without. Or perhaps they're Indian warriors, some ancestors, some enemies, some both. They encircle the wagons, their arms upstretched and full of arrows, sharing a few months of strength and glory before the masks of leaves go on. Nude like this, the hills show us what they're made of. It is in winter that the true face of the hills is displayed. We can see the rock formations , sometimes large like natural Stonehenges, shoved up by a mysterious undertow or set to teeter by a meticulous Creator. Sometimes they appear to have been carefully stacked by a band of ancient builders. Other times they jut out ofthe side ofthe hill, forming cliffs and shallow caves to shelter bobcats, painters (as the old folks say), and, once again as before, lone, roving bears. The old hills, barren of color, give up their illusions and reveal their shapes, like snowflakes no two alike. Colored by spring, summer, and fall, they appear to merge into a single wavy line on the horizon, a neverending , cushioned roller coaster. The clarity of separateness is apparent in wintertime. The circle, it turns out, includes not...

Asymmetric Competition in a Natural Population of Antlion Larvae

We investigated the existence and kind of intraspecific competition among larvae of Myrmemeleon uniformis (Neuroptera: Myrmeleontidae), a pit-trapping antlion, in southeast Brazil. The population occupied an area of about 120 m 2 in a shallow cave, where we demarcated a 1 × 1 m permanent plot. Larval pits were mapped once a week for two months, and the time each individual remained in the same location was estimated. Disappearance represents death or movement in search of a better site. Pit diameter was significantly correlated with larva size. Weekly residence probability increases with pit diameter and decreases with the relative size of the nearest neighbor (neighbor pit radius/neighbor distance). A logistic model also indicates that these competitive asymmetries are smaller for the part of the plot closer to the cave entrance, suggesting that microhabitat influences the magnitude of differences among competitive abilities

Small Animal Exploitation and its Relation to Hunting, Scavenging, and Gathering in the Italian Mousterian

The remains of small aquatic animals are preserved in many Mousterian caves along the Mediterranean coast. These faunas offer clues about hominids' strategies of searching for and transporting small food packages, an important complement to information on ungulate exploitation in the same region. Marine shellfish and tortoise remains from Grotta dei Moscerini, a shallow cave on the Tyrrhenian (west‐central) Italian coast, are examined from taphonomic, zooarchaeologic, and biogeographic perspectives. Mousterian use of large mobile versus small sessile prey are compared to related practices by some “fully modern” human cultures.

Elevated Reefs and Related Pleistocene Stratigraphy of the Southern Exuma Islands, Bahamas

At least seven elevated coral reefs are exposed on the lee side of an inner chain of low islands on the eastern margin of Great Bahama Bank in the Southern Exumas. Starting at Fowl Cay in the north, they extend at least to Pigeon Cay in the south, a distance of about 44 nautical mi (81 km). These reefs formed around preexisting Pleistocene core-islands and hardgrounds during a transgressive higher than present stand of sea level, prior to the Holocene. As sea level dropped, the reefs were karstedand capped by caliche crusts, a unique paleosol breccia containing land snails (Cerithidea. sp.) and a now lithified dune system with well-developed rhizomorphs. Shallow sea caves eroded into steep, clifflike notches are often located on ridges shoreward of the reef, with roof heights of up to 5 m above the top of the elevated reefs. The reefs form a 5- to 10-m wide terrace, approximately 1 m above present sea level. Shoreline exposures often exceed 300 m (1,000 ft). Most exposures have a base thicket of interwoven branches of Acropora cervicornus approximately 70-cm thick. The badly corroded branches are surrounded by a cemented matrix of ooid sands, marine cement, and coralline debris. Themore » upper 30 cm is formed by a much more diverse reef community of broken shells and corals (Montastrea, Diploria Agaricia, Porites, and Acropora). Crustose coralline algae and colonial foraminifera (Homotrema) form a cementing crust around many corals. These reefs and their relationship to paleosols within subaerial dune deposits provide stratigraphic markers that play an important role in interpreting the development of Pleistocene deposits of the Great Bahama Bank.« less

Slope form, erosion, and hydrology in some Belizean Karst depressions

AbstractDetailed slope surveys were made in seven karst depressions in central Belize. Four major slope types were identified—inclined bedrock slopes, staircases, broken cliffs, and talus slopes. Depression bases are dominated by inclined bedrock and talus slopes, midslopes largely by broken cliffs, and near hill summits by staircases. Erosional weight loss tablets deployed in 1975–1981 and 1980–1985 show significant variations between the different slope types, with a maximum near depression bases. Throughfall measurements in 1980 and 1985 show that midslope and near‐summit sites receive 10–20 per cent less water than do depression bases. Surface runoff, monitored using coloured dyes, is of limited distance and duration but still contributes to surface corrosion and morphology. Vadose seepage, monitored by tracing water from the surface to a small, shallow cave, is rapid, and subsurface corrosion exceeds that at the surface.Overall, near‐surface form and process are consistent with hydrological models of depression development (Williams, 1983, 1985) and surface processes contribute significantly to overall depression form. Moreover, surface activity complements that in the subcutaneous zone by directing recharge into the epikarstic aquifer.

Paleohydrology of southwestern Texas

Current statistical methods may be unable to accurately predict recurrence intervals of rare, large‐magnitude floods, especially in semiarid regions having positively skewed annual flood distributions, great hydrologic variability, and widely spaced gaging stations. Current approaches rely on historical data, but catastrophic floods may have recurrence intervals far greater than the length of historical records. In the lower Pecos and Devils Rivers of southwestern Texas, paleoflood discharge and frequency estimates are extended over 10,000 years by the study of slack‐water flood sediments. Slack‐water deposits are typically fine‐grained sand and silt that accumulate during floods in areas where current velocity is reduced, i.e., in back‐flooded tributary mouths, channel expansions, downstream from bedrock spurs and/or slump blocks, and in shallow caves along bedrock walls. Radiocarbon dating of organic detritus in slack‐water deposits establishes the flood chronology while paleoflood discharges can be estimated by slope‐area techniques. Paleoflood information extracted from slack‐water sediments can greatly extend flood records. These floods may be weighted like historical data in log Pearson type 3 calculations of flood frequency. Our morphostratigraphic approach combines recorded data with geomorphic evidence to derive estimates of flood frequency. This technique offers an inexpensive and rapid way to assess catastrophic flood risk.

A New Species of Eleutherodactylus (Amphibia, Anura, Leptodactylidae) from Northwestern Haiti, Hispaniola

A new species of xerophilic Eleutherodactylus belonging to the Antillean ricordi complex is described from the southern coast of the Haitian Presqu'Tle du Nord Ouest, Hispaniola. The Cuban members of the leptodactylid frog genus Eleutherodacty have been divided (Dunn, 1925, 1926; Schwartz, 1958) into a series of groups, of which only one, the auriculatus group, occurs also on the continental mainland (Lynch, 1976). The most widespread of the Cuban Eleutherodactylus groups is the ricordi group; it occurs on all the Greater Antilles and a large number of its members are Hispaniolan. I (Schwartz, 1976) have recently reviewed one complex of ricordi group members, but several problems within even that small complex of 11 species on Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Island, remain unresolved. The present paper contributes one more species that is related to that complex, whose Hispaniolan members include E. pictissimus Cochran, E. weinlandi Barbour, E alcoae Schwartz, E. probolaeus Schwartz, and E. warreni Schwartz. These species in general occur throughout much of Hispaniola, although there are several obvious hiatuses where no member of the complex has been recorded. One of these is the Haitian Presqu'Tle du Nord Ouest; in fact, this peninsula remains one of the least known areas of Hispaniola. The present paper deals with a new species of frog from the periphery of this region. In July 1978, Eugene D. Graham, Jr., William W. Sommer, and I collected extensively along the southern shore of the Presqu'lle du Nord Ouest, between the cities of Gonaives and Coridon. Although the road is coastal and low throughout much of this distance, a portion close to the city of Gonaives passes over a series of limestone hills that descend abruptly to the ocean. The flora and aspect are xeric, and the limestone is eroded into blocks, boulders, and steep cliffs; there are several caves between Ca Soleil (which is the intersection of this coastal road with the main north-south artery between Gonaives and Cap-HaTtien) and a coastal oasis on the northwestern side of these hills. The general region is known as Lapierre, and it is rich in its herpetofauna. Graham and Sommer collected at two localities at night in an area of steep cliffs and boulder jumbles, including a shallow cave about 7 m up on the side of the cliff. While at the cave, they heard a frog call but were unable to find the maker of the sound. That the cave might offer a haven in such a xeric situation was attested by the fact that solution holes in limestone boulders at the cave mouth contained mosses. By chance, Graham, while searching for the calling frog, secured a single non-calling individual, not within the cave but adjacent to it. We can only assume that the call they heard was made by another member of the same species. Two individuals were calling, despite the lack of rain during the preceding day; there had been a deluge in this same region the previous afternoon. Because even with appropriate weather conditions, the region presents difficulties and hazards for night collecting, and because there is no assurance that other specimens will soon be collected, it seems preferable to name this new species on the basis of one specimen, a course of action that I deplore. Yet the frog is so distinctive that I have no doubts that it represents a new taxon, a member of the ricordi group and of the complex within that group noted above. In honor of Eugene D. Graham, Jr., who collected the holotype, I propose that it be called

Breeding Seasons and Sexual Dimorphism in Rockhopper Penguins

VISITS to Campbell Island (520 33' S, 1690 09' E) from 8 to 26 January 1969 and to Antipodes Island (490 40' S, 1780 50' E) from 28 January to 12 March 1969 permit some comparisons between two breeding populations of the Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome) and supplement data gathered at Macquarie Island between 1959 and 1961 (Warham, 1963). The present paper forms part of a series to deal with aspects of the breeding biology of all the Eudyptes penguins. Bailey and Sorensen (1962) describe the distribution and breeding of the Rockhopper Penguin at Campbell Island, which supports many more Rockhoppers than other penguin species. Small numbers of Erectcrested Penguins (E. sclateri) also nest there, and Royal Penguins (E. chrysolophus schlegeli) are not rare though not known to breed. The Yellow-eyed Penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) is the most plentiful penguin after the Rockhopper, but breeds among thick vegetation well away from the latter bird. At Antipodes Island Rockhoppers share breeding beaches and coastal slopes with large numbers of E. sciateri. The latter generally occupy the lower and reasonably flat ground above high water while the Rockhoppers nest higher up, often on steep slopes or within shallow caves. At this island the two species appear to occupy nesting niches equivalent to those Royals and Rockhoppers take up at Macquarie Island where, when the two species are contiguous, the latter again lay higher up among talus debris consolidated by soil, or among tussock grasses. At Campbell Island the data were collected from live birds at a small colony in Rocky Bay below Mt. Dumas and at a larger one at Penguin Bay. At Antipodes Island Rockhoppers occur mainly on the east and south coasts; the data here were gathered at two colonies in the vicinity of the expedition base at Reef Point on the eastern side of the island. Colony locations with indications of size are being mapped and will appear with a general account of Antipodes Island birds (Warham and Bell, MS.). The Expedition was assisted by a grant from the Trans-Antarctic Expedition Research Fund and thanks are also due to the Royal New Zealand Navy for providing transport, to R. Stanley for help in the field, and to K. W. Duncan for advice on statistics.

An ecological study of the cavernicolous fauna of the Nullarbor Plain Southern Australia

The Nullarbor Plain is a low plateau of Tertiary limestone in southern Australia. Its caves may be classified as deep or shallow. They occur in the inland open shrub steppe zone, and the coastal mingled arid scrub and semi‐arid mallee zone. Comparison is made between surface, doline and cave climate in both regions, and the significance of the special climatic conditions on the fauna is discussed. Although caves appear extremely dry, relative humidity is fairly high. Animal burrows have a microclimate intermediate between caves and surface. Plants on the surface are xerophytes, and many are halophytes; but in the dolines they are less salt‐tolerant and require moister, more sheltered conditions. Many vertebrates use the caves as temporary shelters, while others may be trapped in them accidentally. Nineteen species are recorded–eight mammals, eight birds and three reptiles.Arthropods are the principal inhabitants of the caves. Ninety‐five species belonging to 17 orders and 58 families are recorded from 47 caves, and their distribution is given. Of these 25 % are accidentals, 17 % trogloxenes, 52 % troglophiles and 6 % troglobites. About 80 % are identified to genus or species. Within the caves four biotopes are examined–the Parietal Association, the Guano Association, the Dark Zone and the Liquid Medium. The species are grouped into several associations within the first three biotopes–on walls, on floor, under stones, around carcases, amongst guano and decaying vegetation. No macroscopic species have been found in the underground lakes. Only one arthropod species is definitely associated with deep as opposed to shallow caves. About 69% of the species are predators or saprophages; the rest are coprophages, necrophages or ectoparasites. Saprophages or coprop‐hages comprise the greatest number of individuals in the population. Food preferences are listed for a number of arthropods, and a generalized food web has been constructed. Some species travel considerable distances throughout the caves, and a number of Dark Zone species are recorded on the entrance talus slope, in the dolines, or on the surface. About 59 % of the species are known only from a single cave, but 29 % are widely distributed across the plain. Cave “breathing”, the cool, humid night climate, strong winds, occasional heavy rain and numerous animal burrows all contribute to the distribution of cave‐frequenting species across the plain. Subterranean migration may also occur. The cave arthropods may be divided into two groups, one much older geologically than the other. It is suggested that specific climatic conditions have been required for colonization of the caves, and these are considered in relation to current information on the Quaternary climate of the Nullarbor. Much recent colonization has been by species from eastern Australia.