Tutoring Research Articles

Book Review: Shadow Education in the Middle East

Since the 1990s, private supplementary tutoring has become increasingly prevalent across the globe. Such form of tutoring is often referred to as ‘shadow education’ because it ‘mimics schooling’ (p. 4). As such, ‘as the curriculum changes in the schools, so it changes in the shadow; and as the school systems expand, so do shadow systems’ (p. 4). This has inspired numerous scholars to explore its contributing factors and their implications for education policymaking, social mobility, and equity. Shadow Education in the Middle East: Private supplementary tutoring and its policy implications, co-authored by Mark Bray and Anas Hajar, is the latest addition the study of shadow education as a global phenomenon. It builds on Mark Bray and others’ existing works on mapping the global landscape of shadow education, including post-Soviet states (Silova et al., 2006), the Mediterranean (Bray et al., 2013), East Asia (Zhang and Yamato, 2018), South Asia (Joshi, 2021), and Africa (Bray, 2021).

Looking for the experts: examining course accommodations and modifications for students with intellectual disability in inclusive higher education

ABSTRACT Background Opportunities for students with intellectual disability to attend postsecondary education have increased with the rise of inclusive post-secondary education (IPSE) supports, bringing the need to examine the experiences of students and their instructors. Method This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews with 12 university instructors of IPSE students and 10 IPSE students to examine experiences with course adaptations. Results Results indicate that instructors desired greater institutional support, training, and information as they felt unsure about their abilities to support students with intellectual disability and had varied understanding of accommodations and modifications. Students wanted to be seen as capable university students, utilised peer mentor supports, and were able to provide information about how they learned in a university setting. Conclusions The study found that students were valuable but often underutilised sources of information about their own access needs and sometimes worked through and around university systems. Implications for practice are provided.

Medical students as teachers: impact of peer-led teaching sessions on NBME exam performance

Introduction/BackgroundPeer-led teaching sessions (PLTS) supplement conventional medical education, allowing students to share knowledge effectively. PLTS have shown significant academic benefits for student instructors. However, the impact on attendees, especially concerning NBME-style examinations, remains underexplored.MethodsThis study analyzed de-identified data from 67 first-year medical students at Kirk Kerkorian School of Medicine, divided into PLTS attendees (study group) and non-attendees (control group) based on session participation. Data were collected before two NBME examinations, with attendees defined as those attending at least five Peer-led teaching sessions. Academic performance was measured using NBME Customized Assessment Services (CAS) exam scores. Statistical analyses, including p-tests, chi-square, and t-tests, assessed differences in performance and potential biases based on MCAT scores, first-generation status, and socioeconomic background.ResultsThe study group initially had 26 students, and the control group had 31 students. Post-first examination, the study group adjusted to 22 students, and the control group to 35 students. MCAT scores and demographics showed no significant differences between groups. The first examination revealed a significant higher score in PLTS attendees’ scores (4.28% increase, p = 0.036), indicating a positive impact of PLTS on basic science knowledge. The second examination on organ systems physiology showed no significant difference (p = 0.722).DiscussionPLTS effectively enhance foundational science understanding but may be less impactful for advanced topics. The diminishing effect may result from increased use of diverse study resources and adaptation to medical school. Future research should explore long-term benefits, optimal implementation strategies, and the impact of instructor quality and engagement. Therefore, the overall conclusion is that PLTS positively influence NBME-style exam performance in early medical education, but benefits decrease over time.

학부모 교육열의 종단적 변화 유형 탐색

This study aims to categorize the patterns of change in parents' educational enthusiasm and explore student- and parent-level predictors for each group. For this purpose, data from the 3rd to 8th waves of the Korean Education Longitudinal Study 2013 (KELS 2013) were analyzed, focusing on the parents of students who transitioned from middle school to high school. Using Growth Mixture Modeling(GMM), changes in parents' educational expectations and shadow education expenditures were examined. First, distinct subgroups of parents were identified in terms of educational enthusiasm. Changes in educational expectations were categorized into low expectation maintenance group, decreasing expectation group, and high expectation maintenance group, while changes in shadow education expenditures were classified as increasing expenditure group, medium expenditure maintenance group, and high expenditure maintenance group. Second, the predictors of educational enthusiasm included student gender, academic performance in the first year of middle school, parental education, occupational characteristics, and average monthly income. Based on these findings, this study recommends higher education policies that consider parental demands, the expansion of various public education services, and educational programs targeted at parents with low socioeconomic status.

Playing the game of selectivity: The normalisation of merit and invisibilisation of advantage in students’ admission into competitive schools

Students’ beliefs in schooling to achieve opportunity have been well documented in the school choice literature. How students make sense of successful entry into competitive and high-demand schools via high-stakes entrance exams is less researched. High-demand schools, including both public and private schools, can utilise entrance exams to enrol their students. This paper aims to contribute empirical and conceptual insights into school selectivity by tracing the experiences of students as they navigate exams into selective and high-fee private schools, to broaden understandings of how competitive school admissions processes can impact students. Interviews reveal that many students are motivated to achieve occupational opportunities through admission into competitive schools. Influenced by their families, all participants undergo private tutoring and exam coaching to prepare for entrance exams, from a few months to 8 years. Long-term tutoring, repetitive test-taking and applying for multiple high-demand schools both simultaneously and consecutively constitute ‘playing the game of selectivity’, an experience from which students develop conceptions of merit that normalises these processes. Such conceptions of merit include individualistic strategies that render invisible their own sense of economic advantage relative to others.

Mentoring Experiences of New Online Teachers: Voices of Graduate and Early Career Instructors

This research study explores the mentoring experiences of graduate student and early career instructors who teach online courses at a mid-size public university in the United States. As members of a centralized online learning unit that works with instructors teaching online courses across a range of disciplines, we sought to better understand the mentoring experiences of instructors who are new to online teaching. Using a narrative methodology, we analyzed interview transcripts and found that graduate student and early career instructors have variable access to mentoring, experience different sources of mentoring, and engage with multiple types of mentoring. We found that graduate student instructors have more access to different sources and types of mentoring than early career instructors, but that both groups desired additional mentoring opportunities. Participants recognized the value of mentoring experiences as part of their overall professional development. We conclude with suggested actions for units looking to support mentoring for online instructors.

Coached habitus: Mapping the role of shadow education in shaping students' educational trajectories

AbstractStudies have shown how family (typically parents) and formal institutions (specifically schools and universities) shape individuals' dispositions—or habitus. However, other sites of academic socialisation, such as tutoring centres and coaching institutions (collectively forming a shadow education system), are seldom scrutinised for their role in this process. To address this gap in scholarship, this paper draws on interviews with 30 Indian students who narrated their experiences of shadow education in its diversified form, from schooling and higher education to moving to the United Kingdom for advanced education. The discussion of the research findings unveils how shadow education experiences impact students' (academic) dispositions throughout their scholastic lifespan, thus aiding in nurturing academic selves (in early schooling years), cultivating competitive selves (during the transition to university), harnessing enterprising selves (when transitioning within and from university education) and developing transnational selves (as students prepare for international mobility). A synthesis of these empirical realities culminates in introducing a new concept of coached habitus that accounts for the role of shadow education in orchestrating the practices by which students may inculcate specific values, beliefs and habits aiming to prepare them to navigate increasingly competitive educational fields throughout their academic trajectories successfully. The paper argues that shadow education is a key site for habitus formation, particularly in contexts such as India and other Asian countries where non‐formal education is inextricably entwined with everyday schooling experiences.

Influence of Learning Satisfaction and Teaching Willingness on Professional Commitment of Normal University Students

The researcher selected 395 normal students in five universities as the research object. All the five universities selected are old-fashioned normal universities. This study focused on development and changes of normal students' willingness to teach in the process of professional learning in five universities, and discusses the factors that affect normal students' willingness to teach, so as to make them better understand the relationship between professional learning and their professional development from the perspective of normal students, improve their recognition and love for their majors, urge them to study more seriously, enhance normal students' willingness to teach Based from the results of the study.Student instructors were assessed to have an average degree of professional commitment, this may imply many possibilities. Initially, it is possible that their teachers are not providing optimal instruction to their students.The moderate level of professional dedication among student instructors may potentially hinder their prospects of securing employment. Teachers must possess unwavering dedication and profound passion for their profession due to its arduous nature and demanding workload.If student teachers are only moderately satisfied with their learning, it may potentially impact their motivation and involvement.The degree of willingness in instruction among student-teachers is a critical factor in determining the caliber of education and the achievement of students. The levels of satisfaction and willingness of student teachers positively influence the level of commitment of student teachers. Student-teachers who show a commitment to engage in ongoing professional development are more likely to look for chances for growth and progress. Attending workshops, furthering one's education, or interacting with colleagues can all help teachers improve their teaching practices.

Marketization of Shadow Education in Switzerland: How “Edupreneurs” Promote Preparation Programmes for a Selective School Transition

Private supplementary tutoring (PST) is a flourishing market for edupreneurs whose services relate closely to mainstream education. While international research elaborates on geographical variations in PST and edupreneurs’ marketing strategies, the PST market in Switzerland has been largely understudied. This paper contributes to fill this research gap by presenting a thematic analysis of the websites of edupreneurs offering preparation programmes for the highly selective central entrance examination (CEE) to the academically focused public school track of Gymnasium in Zurich. Conceptually, we draw on “problematization” and “commodificiation” as key terms elaborated by “geographies of marketization”. With this performative conceptualisation of the education market, we examine the marketing strategies of the edupreneurs offering CEE preparation courses. We offer two contributions to the existing research. First, the analysis elaborates that private CEE preparation courses are advertised as a market solution that compensates for an omission caused by public education. Second, we show how edupreneurs use rational and emotional arguments to convince families of the need of booking CEE preparation courses for their children. In the discussion, we engage with the findings of our local case study and argue that selective educational transitions have much wider relevance for policy and society elsewhere.

The perception of meaningful work by employed and self-employed workers in the sphere of education

The collection of studies on meaningful work is still quite fragmented and lacks resumptive theoretical models that can be applied to various employment statuses. This article examines the meaningful work phenomenon for both employed and self-employed workers using qualitative data. Drawing on 16 in-depth semi-structured interviews with school teachers and self-employed private tutors in Russia, the analysis demonstrates the nature of meaningful work constructed by employment status. Different institutional frameworks form institutional legitimacy, professional community, the final product of work and the prestige of occupation. The article’s primary theoretical contribution is the development of a theoretical model that describes the multifaceted and impermanent nature of meaningful work. The practical implications include the revelation of prominent differences among workers having different employment statuses, which is a solid foundation for future attempts in conducting quantitative research.

Private Educational Expenditure Inequality between Migrant and Urban Households in China’s Cities

This paper studies households’ expenditure on the education of children in China’s cities to assess how internal migrant families’ investment in the human capital of their offspring differs from that of local urban families. The private education-related expenditure reflects both households’ willingness to invest in human capital and institutional constraints, as China’s household registration (hukou) system prevents children without a local city hukou from enrolling in urban public schools. In-school fees (consisting of statutory tuition and institutional tuition fees) are commonly topped-up with substantial private tutoring expenditure. We apply multiple regression to the 2008 “Rural–Urban Migration Survey in China” data to analyze the average expenditure differences between temporary migrants, permanent migrants and locals. The findings are, after controlling for social and economic characteristics, that: (1) the overall spending on education of migrant households overwhelmingly exceeds that of locals, which is expected since migrants must finance privately all education-related expenses their children incur; (2) migrant households spend more on institutional tuition fees compared to households with a local city hukou, reflecting the varying severity of administrative hurdles faced by families; and (3) temporary migrants spend more on institutional tuition fees than permanent migrant households, but less in private tutoring.

‘To be on the seventh sky’: exploring the nature and push of key factors in Indian parents’ choice for shadow education

ABSTRACT This research contributes to the current discourse about the role of parentocracy in the expansion of shadow education (known as private tutoring or supplementary instruction) for primary -grade children. Multiple data collection techniques were employed through the distribution of open-ended questionnaires and one-to-one semi-structured interviews, involving 171 parents of primary-grade children belonging to North India. The thematic analysis of the data highlighted the motivations of parents for engaging their children in shadow education and its significant impacts. In addition, the research highlighted the relationship between parents’ socioeconomic status and the accessibility of shadow education for primary grade children. The study has further explored the role of parental educational background in influencing the expansion of shadow education for primary grade children. The findings concluded that the most significant motivation of parents for engaging their primary grade children in shadow education is reducing the screen time of their children.

Private tutoring and academic achievement in a selective education system

ABSTRACT This study explores how private tutoring relates to students’ transitions to demanding post-compulsory schools and their success there, considering their competencies after tutoring but before the transition. Analyzing PISA and linked register data from Switzerland, we find that students who received private tutoring before the transition are more likely to struggle in selective schools compared to non-tutored peers with similar competencies. While our results are not causal due to the non-random nature of private tutoring uptake, our findings underscore a potential concern regarding selection mechanisms for entry into selective education.

Inequality in participation in shadow education in mathematics in Europe: An intersectional perspective

There is a growing body of research on participation in shadow education (SE), reflecting the global growth of this sector. However, less is known about the topic from an intersectional perspective. Drawing on TIMSS 2019 and PISA 2012 data for European countries, this paper explores the way in which social background, gender and migration background interact to shape participation in mathematics SE. Our findings show that across European Economic Area (EEA) countries, migrant females from socioeconomically disadvantaged families have the highest probability of participating in SE at the primary school level, while native males from socioeconomically advantaged families have the lowest probability of doing so. At the secondary school level, regardless of their socioeconomic background, migrant female students have the highest likelihood of participating in SE compared to other groups. Our research reveals that contrary to common understanding, participation in SE is not solely determined by high socioeconomic status, especially for specific demographics like migrant girls, indicating the need for future studies to delve deeper into the various factors influencing such involvement beyond just financial means.

“I enjoy conversing with my professor”: relational maintenance behaviors in the undergraduate student–instructor context

ABSTRACT Scholars of communication, teaching, and learning have been calling for more research on the instructor–student relationship to be studied from an interpersonal perspective. To answer these calls, we conducted a two-step scale development study, first to derive participant-generated responses concerning undergraduate student relational maintenance behaviors and second to construct and validate a scale concerning those behaviors. Of additional interest was to explore reasons as to why students aim to maintain these relationships. A 19-item measure titled the Student Relational Maintenance Scale was created, consisting of making connections, respectful behavior, classroom participation, expressing gratitude, and classroom effort. Additionally, results revealed that both professional reasons and personal reasons motivated students to build these relationships. The results of this study provided further insight into how and why undergraduate college students build positive interpersonal connections with their instructors.

외국의 사교육 수요시장 및 수요관리 정책 동향 분석

[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to analyze foreign private tutoring demand markets and demand management policy trends. The aim was to present implications necessary for managing the domestic private tutoring market. [Methods] In this study, using 103 domestic and foreign research materials, domestic and foreign private tutoring demand markets were analyzed in terms of participation rates of private tutoring, gaps in private tutoring expenses between classes, participation backgrounds and its purposes, and response measures and policies trends for private tutoring demand management were further analyzed as well. [Results] First, the participation rate results of private tutoring over all showed increasing trends across East and West countries regardless of rich or poor, capitalist or socialist, and its more increase due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The participation rates of private tutoring was higher among students with parents in socioeconomic status, who lived in cities, and had top grades, and the gaps in private tutoring expenses between classes were a factor causing social imbalance. Second, the backgrounds and purposes of participating in private tutoring were being formed by being linked to current or changing education, social culture, economy and policy. Although they were somewhat different depending on the education systems and overall conditions of each country, there was the common ground arisen from parents' human nature and desire who wanted their children to live a stable life in the future. While the backgrounds and purposes of private tutoring participation were driven from expectations for usefulness of private tutoring, it partially led to the factor causing the harmful effects of private tutoring. Third, each government's measures and policies for private tutoring demand management were somewhat different depending on the government's perspective on private tutoring and its level of the economy, but those most representative ones included strengthening public education, expanding after-school and care services, supporting the vulnerable social group, improving tests in schools and entrance examination systems, and reforming curricula in schools. These policies lowered students' burden of learning and parents' burden of educating and raising their children, but did not produce clear results in reducing the demand for and dependence on private tutoring. [Conclusion] In order to manage the private tutoring demand market, the multifaceted and complex aspects surrounding private tutoring must be understood deeply, and realistic policies suitable for interests of individuals and their society must be established through evaluations of the harmfulness and usefulness of private tutoring.

Learning English in the ‘shadow’: Patterns and implications of English private tutoring in Vietnam

Private tutoring has grown in prominence on a global scale. While research in this area has increased in recent decades, there remains a lack of focus on English private tutoring. This gap is particularly evident in Vietnam, where research on English private tutoring has not kept pace with its growing popularity. This article sheds light on the prevalence of English private tutoring among students in public high schools in Vietnam. The study examines the rate, patterns of enrolment, the reasons for its popularity and the perceived effectiveness of English private tutoring. Based on questionnaire data collected from 583 urban, regional, and rural school students, the findings revealed an enrolment rate of over 75%, with notable disparities in enrolment patterns among students in different socio-economic areas. However, despite the prevalence of private tutoring, the research findings revealed a modest impact of such tutoring on student academic performance, evidenced by over 75% of the students reporting slight improvement in their communicative skills. Irrespective of academic achievement levels and backgrounds, private tutoring has been a widespread and normalised educational practice, reflecting the nature of social and educational competition. The study emphasises the need for more proactive measures to regulate the practice before it is well-engrained as part of the culture.

Shadow education, enabler or barrier: insights from Malaysian secondary school students

ABSTRACT Shadow education (SE) or supplementary private tutoring research has gained significant traction in the past two decades. With extensive implications of SE on the ecology of education and academic performance, this study investigates Malaysian secondary school students’ views on SE and its perceived impact on their academic performance. Eight focus groups with four schools (n = 47) were conducted with students (n = 24) who used SE and those who did not (n = 23) for a more holistic perspective. Findings revealed that all students perceived SE as beneficial for achieving improved academic performance. SE users found SE enhances their mainstream schooling performance. Nonetheless, they reported negative lifestyle impacts due to time demands. Furthermore, students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds reported that they felt educationally disadvantaged by not having access to SE due to its cost. We conclude that the inequality of opportunities requires policy responses to SE for regulation purposes in the Malaysian setting.

A narrative inquiry into EFL tutors’ career trajectories through social cognitive career theory

Despite the prevalence of English private tutoring (EPT) in EFL contexts, scant literature has focused on its tutors’ career experiences. This narrative study, underpinned by social cognitive career theory (SCCT), inquiries into the career trajectories of three EFL tutors in Mainland China. Data were mainly collected through three rounds of narrative interviews. Tutors’ photos representing significant career moments supplemented the interview data. Based on their narratives, these participants experienced ‘zigzag’ career trajectories that featured frequent turnovers, lengthy work gaps, and identity shifts from institutional tutors to start-up owners. Informed by SCCT, this study unveils that tutors’ career trajectories were shaped by their self-efficacy beliefs associated with personal attributes and prior experiences. Tutors’ trajectories were also shaped by their outcome expectations from material and social perspectives, and contextual influences, including personal opportunities and barriers, institutional management, and socio-political factors like the ongoing ‘Double Reduction’ policy. These findings are discussed in order to inform other tutors to visualize and organize their career development within the context of policy constraints and, furthermore, offer implications for tutorial institutions to retain tutors for instructional consistency. This inquiry also demonstrates the potential to apply the SCCT model to understanding teachers’ career development in the ‘shadow education’ context.

“There Is Only One Childhood”: A New Interpretation of China’s “Crackdown” on Education Companies

In recent years, the Chinese government has implemented a series of dramatic crackdowns on various business sectors in China, one of which, beginning in July 2021, targeted the private tutoring industry. This article offers a new interpretation of this crackdown on private education companies, arguing that it is part of a new comprehensive education policy called the “Double Reduction” (DR) policy. Although the policy’s main goal has been to reduce students’ educational burden, this article also links the policy to China’s core objective of advancing indigenous innovation to enable national rejuvenation. The analysis of the DR policy also reveals two contradictions that currently characterize China’s educational path: first, the contradiction inherent in the authoritarian and paternalistic state using tough measures to enforce parental compliance with policies aimed at fostering more democratic parenting styles; and second, the contradiction inherent in policies aimed at fostering happy childhoods for the purposes of global competitiveness.