Shade Levels Research Articles

Optimizing the Quality and Commercial Value of Gyokuro-Styled Green Tea Grown in Australia

Gyokuro is a style of Japanese green tea produced by employing agricultural shading in the weeks before harvest. This method results in a tea product with different organoleptic and chemical properties than common Japanese green tea. In an effort to yield the highest quality and commercially valuable green tea product, the present study explores the influence of shading treatments and the duration of shading on the natural biochemistry of the green tea plant. This study applied shading treatments at light intensity conditions of 40%, 16%, 10% and 1% of available ambient light and the application of a red-colored shade cloth of 60% opacity. The Quality Index Tool was used to measure the quality and commercial value of the green tea, using individual target constituents (theanine, caffeine and the catechins) quantified from HPLC analysis. This study shows that very high levels of total visible spectrum light shading (~99%) is required to achieve improvements in quality and commercial value. Specifically, this improvement is a direct result of changes in the mood- modifying bioactive metabolites theanine and caffeine. This study concludes that in green tea growing regions with more hours of sunlight per year, such as on the Central Coast of Australia, more intense shading will achieve products with improved quality and commercial value, which has more potential to be marketed as a functional ingredient.

Chlorophyll Components, Total Flavonoid, Anthocyanin Content and Yield of Eleutherine palmifolia L. (Merr) on Different Shading Levels

Abstract Eleutherine palmifolia (L.) Merr is one of the horticultural that may be utilized as a medicinal plant. It contained flavonoid and anthocyanin. The production of bioactive content on E. palmifolia was affected by light intensity. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of different shading levels on the physiological response and the yield of Dayak onions. This experiment was conducted at Sukoharjo, District of Ngaglik, Region of Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, from May to October 2020. This experiment was arranged in a randomized block design non factorial. Three treatments were given, namely no shading, shading 55%, and shading 75%. Each treatment was repeated five times. The result revealed that shade had a varied influence on E. palmifolia’s physiology and yield. Shading 55% and 75% produced the number of tiller and bulb of E. palmifolia lower than no shading. The fresh bulb weight of E. palmifolia in the range between 34.9 – 38.5 g plant-1. The chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll total, chlorophyll a/b ratio, and chlorophyll b/a ratio content on E. palmifolia’s bulb were not affected by different shading given. Shading 75% gave the highest total flavonoid and anthocyanin content of E. palmifolia’s bulb was 19.77% and 28.10% than no shading, respectively.

Soybean Varieties Respond to the Shade of Teak Trees

Background: Light is one of the environmental factors that greatly affect the growth and yield of crops in general, including soybean plants. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of shade on yield and yield components of soybean varieties. Methods: The research method was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The first factor was the kind of variety which consisted of two levels, i.e., Dena I and Anjasmara. The second factor was the level of shading, which consisted of four levels, i.e., 0, 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40%. Result: The results showed that shade decreased the number of filled pods, dry pod weight per plant, 100 seeds weight and seed yield ha-1. As the shade increases, the lower the yield and component of soybean yields increases. The decrease in seed yield ha-1 of Dena I variety at 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40% shade was 22, 14 and 50%, respectively, while the Anjasmara variety was 9, 49 and 59%. Shade decreases yields and yield components of Dena I and Anjasmara varieties. In the higher level of shade, the yield reduction will increase.

Morphophysiological aspects of <i>Erythroxylum pauferrense</i> Plowman seedlings submitted to shading

Sunlight directly influences on the development of forest species by affecting the attributes of plant growth and physiology. Among these species, Erythroxylum pauferrense Plowman is considered a rare species, as its distribution is restricted only to the state of Paraíba. Therefore, studies are needed that seek to evaluate the adaptation, development and propagation of the species under different environmental conditions. This study aimed to evaluate morphophysiological aspects of Erythroxylum pauferrense seedlings submitted to different levels of shading. The experiment was carried out under greenhouse condition in a completely randomized design with five treatments (0, 30, 50, 70, and 90% shading) and eight replicates. Growth characteristics, morphofunctional attributes, gas exchange, chlorophyll (Chl) a fluorescence, and Chl content were evaluated. Data were submitted to analysis of variance followed by polynomial regression analysis. Results showed that plants grown under 30 to 50% shading showed higher plant height, stem diameter, absolute growth rate for plant height, leaf dry mass, stem dry mass, total dry mass, Dickson’s quality index, leaf area, and leaf area index, as well as net assimilation rate of CO2, stomatal conductance, transpiration, instantaneous water use efficiency, and Chl a, b, and a+b contents. Therefore, levels from 30 to 50% shading are the most recommended for the production of Erythroxylum pauferrense seedlings. We recommend using Erythroxylum pauferrense to reforest the understory in disturbed areas in Brejos de Altitude and large-scale production of seedlings under intermediate levels of shading.

Investigation of Small-Scale Photovoltaic Systems for Optimum Performance under Partial Shading Conditions

Not only are small photovoltaic (PV) systems widely used in poor countries and rural areas where the electrical loads are low but they can also be integrated into the national electricity grid to save electricity costs and reduce CO2 emissions. Partial shading (PS) is one of the phenomena that leads to a sharp decrease in the performance of PV systems. This study provides a comprehensive performance investigation of small systems (consisting of ten modules or fewer) under all possible shading patterns that result from one shading level (300 W/m2 is chosen). The most common configurations are considered for which a performance comparison is presented. Five small systems of different sizes are studied under PS. A new simplifying method is proposed to identify the distinct PS patterns under study. Consequently, the number of cases to be studied is significantly reduced from 1862 to 100 cases only. The study is conducted using the MATLAB/SimulinkÒ environment. The simulation results demonstrate the most outperformed configuration in each case of PS pattern and the amount of improvement for each configuration. The configurations include static series-parallel (SP), static total-cross-tied (TCT), dynamic switching between SP and TCT, and TCT-reconfiguration. The study provides PV systems’ owners with a set of guidelines to opt for the best configuration of their PV systems. The optimum recommended configuration is TCT reconfiguration, rather than dynamic switching between SP and TCT. The less recommended option, which enjoys simplicity but is still viable, is the static TCT. It outperforms the static SP in most cases of PS patterns.

Mucuna pruriens, Crotalaria juncea, and chickpea (Cicer arietinum) have the potential for improving productivity of banana‐based systems in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

AbstractIntercropping banana and shorter annual crops in small holder systems is inevitable despite shade being a limitation. Current production is also limited to the wet seasons. Strategies to exploit the spaces under banana shade and drier seasons are crucial for optimal production of these systems. We determined the performance of two legume cover crops, Mucuna pruriens and Crotalaria juncea, and chickpea (Cicer arietinum), a grain legume, under different banana shade levels and over the wet and dry seasons in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Banana and legume monocrops served as controls. Shade reduced weed biomass and legume root nodulation, biomass, and grain yields. Chickpea root nodulation had a lower sensitivity to shade (3–9% reduction) compared with mucuna (30–60%) and crotalaria (31–71%). Legume biomass yield declines varied from 37–83%, 56–93%, and 80–98% for mucuna, crotalaria, and chickpea, respectively. Higher nodulation occurred in the rainy compared with the dry season. Biomass yield declines, albeit low occurred in the dry season for mucuna (15%) and crotalaria (30%). In contrast, chickpea biomass and grain yields increased by 394% and 4487%, respectively, in the dry season. A higher banana vegetative growth occurred in the intercropped plots. Land equivalent ratios of 1.15–1.34 under dense shading for mucuna and crotalaria and 1.10–1.62 for chickpea occurred irrespective of the seasons. These findings suggest that these cover crops and chickpea could be exploited to enhance biomass (for fodder, mulch, or manure) and grain yields under banana shade and over the drier seasons.

Shade induces contrasting light photosynthetic performance between Signal and Guinea Grasses

Signal grass (Urochloa decumbens) and guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus) are African grasses that are well established in the Brazilian Savannah and we tested their adaptation to different light intensity. Plants were grown for 45 days under 0% shade (full sun) and 25, 40, and 80% induced shade to evaluate their photosynthetic performance. Light curves showed higher values of electron transport rate, photochemical quenching, and effective quantum yield in plants subjected to 0 and 25% shade for signal grass and in 25 and 40% shade for guinea grass. The potential quantum yield evaluations revealed that signal grass felt the effects of excessive light around 11:30 am on plants subjected to 0 and 25% shade. Conversely, guinea grass showed these photoinhibition effects at the same shade level but in a longer time range (9:30 am to 1:30 pm). As shade increased, there was a reduction tendency of the pigment content in signal grass and the opposite was observed for guinea grass. Stomatal conductance showed different values during the day and among different shade levels and there were no differences in relative water content between treatments and species. Results indicated better photosynthetic performance for signal grass under high intensity and better photosynthetic performance for guinea grass subjected to intermediate and higher levels of shade. Altogether, the results indicate that guinea grass seems to be a more appropriate choice for silvopasture systems.

A monitoring system for online fault detection in multiple photovoltaic arrays

In this paper, a low-cost comprehensive Zigbee-based wireless monitoring system with fault detection technique is developed for online monitoring of a multiple photovoltaic (PV) array configurations. Different electrical parametric attributes were utilized to investigate the susceptibility of various commonly used PV array topologies to partial shade and electrical faults. A prediction model is used to compute a number of attributes for a given set of operating conditions - solar irradiance and PV module temperature. The predicted qualities are then compared to the ones acquired from field measurements, resulting in the identification of potentially defective operating conditions. In addition, a user-friendly web application is being built for quick Internet access to monitored data. The suggested approach is meant to have minimal processing needs and hence, a single microcontroller is employed for data transfer and fault detection. The proposed technique has been tested experimentally. The properties are shown to be significantly dependent on the shading/faults in the arrays and varied for various topologies, and may be utilized to detect/predict faults. Also, it has been shown that at varied shading levels the parallel topology produced higher power. However, with 90% system failure, all the topologies produced almost identical power.

The Coffee Compromise: Is Agricultural Expansion into Tree Plantations a Sustainable Option?

In tropical regions, land-use pressures between natural forest, commercial tree plantations, and agricultural land for rural communities are widespread. One option is to increase the functionality of commercial plantations by allowing agroforestry within them by rural communities. Such land-sharing options could address wider societal and environmental issues and reduce pressure on natural forest. To investigate the trade-offs involved, we used InVEST to model the ecosystem services provided by growing coffee under commercial pine plantations in Indonesia against other land-use options. Pine–coffee agroforestry provided worse supporting and regulating services (carbon, sediment and nitrogen retention, catchment runoff) than natural forest; however, it provided greater provisioning services (product yield) directly to smallholders. Converting pine monoculture into pine-coffee agroforestry led to increases in all ecosystem services, although there was an increased risk to water quality. Compared with coffee and root crop monocultures, pine–coffee agroforestry provided higher levels of supporting and regulating services; however, product yields were lower. Thus, opening up pine plantations for agroforestry realises additional income-generating opportunities for rural communities, provides wider ecosystem service benefits, and reduces pressure for land-use change. Lower smallholder yields could be addressed through the management of shade levels or through Payments for Ecosystem Services schemes.

Morphophysiological comparison of Schizolobium parahyba varieties seedlings cultivated under different shading levels

Schizolobium parahyba varieties are found in both Atlantic and Amazon Forests, being considered suitable raw material for pulp, paper, pharmaceutical, and bioenergy industries. Hence, seeking to exploit the production of native seedlings adapted to adverse environments, this work aimed to evaluate seedlings growth of two S. parahyba varieties under three different shading conditions (full sunlight, 30%-shading screen, and 70%-shading screen). We carried out the experiment in full sunlight, 30% shading screen and 70% shading screen and used a commercial substrate Tropstrato Florestal ® in a factorial scheme 2x3, for 90 days. Growth and physiological (gas exchange and pigments content) parameters were assessed at the end of the experiment. In contrast to the results found for this analysis, verified by means of the IRGA measuring device, most of the growth traits differed among treatments while the photosynthetic pigments were strongly influenced by shading levels regardless of varieties. S. parahyba var. amazonicum ‘Paricá’ presented better fitting and growth under 70%-shading screen, since it displays a close physiognomy of ‘terra firma’ regions, thus being suitable for reforestation in closed-canopy forests. On the other hand, S. parahyba var. parahyba ‘Guapuruvu’ presented better responses on growth parameters under the 30%-shading screen, with potential for open forests. S. parahyba varieties present some phenotypic variation to shading levels wherein this information can be useful for this species management.

Seasonal phenology, shade reliance, and ecophysiology of wild Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum in Sonoran Desert

The phenological responses of Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum (Cag) plants were documented, tracking the seasonal climatic trend in the Sonoran Desert. Plants exhibited a relatively fast seasonal phenological transition in synchrony with fast shifts in solar radiation, air temperatures, relative humidity, and rainfalls. Plants developed under significant levels of shade throughout their phenological stages; however, the increase of sunlight penetration and rising air temperatures during the mid-winter period suggests an early photonic/thermal stimulation effect, which could drive the transition between dormancy and budburst. Early buds outbreak can occur in some individuals. First leaves development suggests a strategic phenological/ecophysiological transitional interruption can occur to cope with drought conditions during the spring period. During rainy summer-autumn plants fully grew either vegetative only or vegetative/reproductively. The CO2 assimilation curves in response to light suggest that plants are photosynthetically adapted to photonic flux in the low-intermediate range. Leave's diurnal gas exchange responded differentially under contrasting levels of sunlight, temperatures, and vapor pressure deficit, depending on the plant's phenological stage. Ecosystem-level dataset suggests that duration of air temperature thresholds and significant variation in precipitation peaks during seasons transition could drive subtle timeline shifts between succession/extension of phenological stages and consequently in the forest mass productivity.

Effects of Solar Radiation on Dry Matter Distribution and Root Morphology of High Yielding Maize Cultivars

The root system connects the plant with the soil, which is a key factor in determining the utilization of soil resources and plant growth potential. Solar radiation can change maize shoot and root growth and affect grain formation. In this study, the effects of different solar radiation conditions on root morphology of three maize cultivars XY335, ZD958 and DH618 and their quantitative relationships were studied by conducting shading experiments. This study was conducted in maize high yield region of Qitai and Yinchuan, China, in 2018 and 2019. The planting densities were 7.5 × 104 (D1) and 12 × 104 (D2) plants ha−1. The shading levels were natural light (CK), shading 15% (S1), 30% (S2) and 50% (S3). The results showed that maize responded to the decreased solar radiation through the increase in ratio of shoot dry weight (SWR) to whole plant dry weight and the decrease in ratio of root dry weight (RWR) to whole plant dry weight. As the solar radiation decreased, the root length density (RLD), root surface area (RSA), average root diameter (ARD) and root length ratio (RLR) decreased, while the specific root length (SRL) increased. With 100 MJ m−2 decrease in solar radiation, the RWR, RLD, RSA and RLR each decreased by 1.47%, 0.5 mm cm−3,0.4 m m−2 and 0. 19 m g−1, respectively. Among the cultivars, the changes of DH618 were the fastest followed by XY335 and ZD958 but DH618 maintained the largest root system under any solar radiation condition. After the decrease of solar radiation, RWR, RLD and RLR were significantly positively correlated with the yield. This indicated that large root systems were conducive to the rapid response to decreased solar radiation and important for achieving stable and high yield. Maize cultivars with these type of root systems should be recommended to better adapt low solar radiation induced by regional variation or climate change.

Effect of Shade on Agro-Morphological Parameters and Weed Flora of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Cultivation in the Semiarid Zone of Eastern Morocco.

Saffron (Crocus sativus) has been an important medicinal plant since ancient times. This study aimed to seek the optimal light intensity for saffron growth by quantifying the effects of different shade levels on yield, vegetative growth, and weed development in the eastern region of Morocco. The plants were grown for 24 months in full sun (control) and 30%, 50%, and 70% shade. Overall, the results showed that shade positively affected the yield and vegetative growth parameters of saffron plants, with the highest yield (0.61 g/m2) and number of leaves (105 leaves/tuft) recorded when the plants were exposed to light shade (30%). The color of the leaves under the 70% shade levels was dark green. The results from the underground part showed that shade is positively correlated with the weight and diameter of daughter corms where the 70% shade recorded the highest values of weight (65 g) and percentage of large diameter corms (39%). As for weed density, this parameter was significantly affected by shade. The lowest weed density was recorded for the 70% shade treatment. In conclusion, 30% shade is suggested as optimal light irradiation for saffron cultivation.

Evaluation of shade tolerance of one annual and five perennial Medicago species under different artificial shade levels

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to evaluate the shade tolerance of one annual and five perennial Medicago genotypes under different artificial shade levels and determine the shade tolerant candidates for an intercropping system. The results showed that shade significantly affected branch number and plant dry weight, but not plant height and leaf area. The mean branch number and dry weight plant−1 (g) across the tested genotypes were 42.5 and 2.2 under non-shade condition, decreased to 39.5 and 2.0 at 25% shade level, and were further reduced to 17.2 and 0.4 at 75% shade level, respectively. The mean chlorophyll content (mg g−1) and maximum quantum yield of Photosystem II (Fv/Fm) across the tested genotypes at 75% shade level (38.8; 0.6) were significantly lower than other shade levels (46.6–47.3; 0.69–0.70). Antioxidant enzyme activity and malondialdehyde production in Medicago leaves increased concomitantly with increased shade levels compared to non-shade control. The evaluation showed that annual M. polymorpha ‘Jinhuacai’ (range of mean: 0.97–5.97 g) significantly out-yielded those perennials (range of mean: 0.26–2.57 g) by a wide margin at all shade levels. This study would provide baseline information on shade tolerance of Medicago species for the selection of intercropped candidates in an intercropping system.

Acclimation to low light modifies nitrogen uptake in Halophila ovalis (R.Brown) J.D. Hooker

Seagrass meadows can improve water quality through their nutrient removal capacity. However, this key ecosystem function might be affected by reduced light availability in the water column through impacts on seagrass photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides energy and carbon skeletons for nitrogen uptake and assimilation in plants – a reduction in photosynthetic capacity should alter nitrogen metabolism. In our study, we explored how nitrogen metabolism in a common tropical seagrass, Halophila ovalis, responded as the plant photo-acclimated to reduced light levels. H. ovalis was exposed to various shading levels (0% control, 25% and 50%) in the field at Chek Jawa, Singapore for 28 days. Photo-acclimation was tracked by measuring light use characteristics through PAM fluorometry (rapid light curves) and protein expression pertaining to photosynthetic processes (RbcL, PsbA and PsbS). Nitrate and ammonium uptake rates were assessed in leaves and root-rhizome complexes, and plant tissue nutrients (carbon and nitrogen) were quantified at the end of the experiment. Shaded plants displayed significant photoacclimation responses, such as lower maximum electron transport rates (ETRmax) and saturating irradiance (Ek), as well as a down-regulation of PsbA and PsbS. Several parameters (ETRmax, Ek and PsbS protein levels) were identified to be promising candidates for monitoring impacts of light reduction on seagrass health and warrant further investigations. As the seagrass acclimated to reduced light levels, a shift in nitrogen use was observed through a reduction in relative nitrate uptake rates in the leaves and root-rhizome complexes, and an increase in relative ammonium uptake rates in the leaves. This signaled potential modifications in nutrient removal capacity, via nitrogen uptake, for seagrasses in low light conditions. Carbon-to‑nitrogen ratio in plant tissue and the expression of RbcL did not exhibit significant change with light reduction. Our findings highlight that inter-related processes of photosynthesis and nitrogen assimilation should be considered when evaluating the potential impacts of light reduction on seagrass meadows and the ecosystem functions they provide.

Study of Coffee Thread Blight Disease (Corticium koleroga (Cke) Hoehnel) in Ethiopia

Thread blight caused by Corticium koleroga is a devastating disease that causes severe damage to Coffea arabica in Ethiopia. However, it is one of the least researched diseases in Ethiopia. Therefore, the current work was designed with the objectives to (1) assess the intensity of the disease, (2) identify major factors associated with the disease intensity, (3) identify and characterize C. koleroga isolates and (4) determine the pathogenicity of C. koleroga isolates in southwest Ethiopia. For this purpose, field surveys were conducted on 180 farmers’ fields in 12 districts of southwest Ethiopia during 2017 cropping season. In addition, diseased samples were collected from 11 districts of southwestern Ethiopia during the study. The 11 C. koleroga isolates were characterized using macroscopic and microscopic features. The isolates were cultured on potato dextrose agar and incubated at 25 °C for ten days. The treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications. The average thread blight incidence varied from 0% to 46% while mean disease severity ranged from 0% to 44%. The thread blight disease incidence and severity were higher at areas representing highland and midland altitudes compared with lowland altitudes. Thread blight severity was positively and strongly associated with rainfall (r = 0.75) and relative humidity (r = 0.85), but the disease severity was negatively and strongly associated with mean temperature (r = -0.79) and shade level (r = -0.50), while it was positively and intermediately correlated to altitude (r = 0.44) and coffee production systems (r = 0.36). The colony color of C. koleroga isolates were from white to floral white, with circular to irregular form and filiform to entire in margin on PDA plates. Growth rate of the isolates varied between 6 and 9 mm/day in diameter. Average basidiospore size ranged from 10 to 13.75 x 3.75 to 5μ. All isolates were pathogenic to C. arabica with different lesion sizes. The present study revealed the importance of coffee thread blight, identified factors associated with the disease intensity and morphological characteristics of C. koleroga existing in southwestern Ethiopia. Future research should be directed towards surveying more agro-ecologies to have a complete picture on the importance of thread blight disease across the country and molecular characterization of the pathogen to recommend disease management strategies. Keywords: Basidia; Basidiospore; Disease incidence; Isolates; Koleroga; Mycilium; Severity DOI: 10.7176/FSQM/113-02 Publication date: February 28 th 2022

Study of Growth and Production Test of Soybean Varieties on Shade Coconut Trees in Aceh

The conversion occurrence of agricultural land has a significant effect on the decline in soybean production, so that the use of coconut land with a double cropping system to increase national soybean production. Soybean cultivation in agroforestry systems can be applied to soybean cultivation systems under shade with shade-tolerant varieties. This study aims to determine the growth and yield of soybean varieties at various levels of shade of coconut trees. The research was carried out in Paru Keude Village, Bandar Baru District, Pidie Jaya Regency, Aceh, carried out in April – September 2019, with a Split Plot Design. The main plot is shade (N) consisting of no shade (N1), 25% shade (N2) and 50% shade (N3), and the variety plot (V) consists of Dena 1 (V1), Anjasmoro (V2) and Fan Red (V3). The study was analyzed by ANOVA, if the F value was greater than the value in the F table, it was continued with Duncan's Multiple Range Test at a significance level of 95%. The results showed that the Kipas Merah variety had higher plant height than Dena 1 and Anjasmoro, but Dena 1 had higher production at each shade level compared to Anjasmoro and Kipas Merah. Thus, the Dena 1 variety was able to maintain production at all shading conditions.

Zoysia matrella (Manila grass)

‘A-1’ was selected from a breeding population of 40 seedling Zoysia matrella plants from various parts of Southeast Asia (Japan, Philippines, China, Korea, Vietnam and Thailand). The original plants were vegetatively propagated and evaluated first in pots. A shortlist of selected genotypes was expanded to field plantings at Sheldon, QLD and evaluated against existing Z. matrella and Z. matrella x Z. japonica hybrid cultivars under mowing heights from 10 to 25mm and under shade levels ranging from 0 to 80%. ‘A-1’ showed higher tiller density and a more prostrate growth habit than the parent ecotype, and was selected from the subsequent breeding population on the basis of its superior turf colour and quality under mowing for 6 years and its shade tolerance as shown by its ability to maintain density of the mown sward under greatly reduced light levels (70-80% shade). Additional observations regarding climatic adaptation were made in Cairns, QLD, and Melbourne, VIC, respectively. Breeder: Donald S Loch, Alexandra Hills, QLD. PBR Certificate Number 3649, Application Number 2008/091, granted 16 December 2008.

Características morfogênicas e estruturais de perfilhos e acúmulo de forragem do capim-tanganica sob níveis de sombreamento

ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the effect of tree shading levels on tillers’ morphogenetic and structural traits, besides the herbage accumulation of Tanganyika grass ( Megathyrsus maximus Jacq. cv. Tanganyika). For that, an experiment was carried out from December 2010 to March 2012, under a completely randomized design, with four treatments (shading levels) and five repetitions. Phyllochron (PHY), leaf and stem elongation rates (LER and SER, respectively), number of leaves per tiller (NLT), leaf blade length (LBL), stem length (ST), tiller population density (TPD), leaf (LGR) and stem growth rates (SGR), senescence rate (SR) and herbage accumulation rate (HAR) were assessed. Excepted by the LER and NLT, the shading levels influenced the other morphogenetic variables (P<0.05), positively or negatively. Except in the spring, the TPD linearly increased because of the shading levels (P<0.05). At tiller level, except in the spring, the LBL linearly increased with the shading levels (P<0.05). In general, the SL linearly decreased with the shading levels. Regarding the growth rates, summer II and spring provided greater values, and the lowest one occurred in autumn (P<0.05). The adjustments of both morphogenetic and structural traits ensured the Tanganyika grass a great adaptation to the shaded environment.

Response of sow thistle to the level of shading and mycorrhiza

Perennial sow thistle (Sonchus arvensis L.) is one of the Indonesian medicinal plants that contain flavonoid compounds. The research aimed to examine the effects of shading and mycorrhiza application toward the growth, fresh and dry weight of shoot, chlorophyll, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and quercetin content of S. arvensis. The research was conducted in the greenhouse of the Soil Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. The experimental design used was a split-plot design, with shading level as the main plot and mycorrhiza application as the subplot. Shading treatment comprised four levels: 0%, 25%, 40%, and 75%, whether subplot comprised two levels: control and with mycorrhizal inoculation. The result showed that shading significantly affected plant growth, fresh and dry weight of shoot, and chlorophyll content. Without shading levels (level 0%) resulted in the highest plant growth, nutrient uptake and yield. The shading level of 0% with AMF application resulted in the highest yield of quercetin. The chlorophyll a, b, and total chlorophyll content was not significantly different at 0%, 25%, and 40% shading levels but decreased significantly at 75% shade levels.