Experiences Of Sexual Violence Research Articles

Factors Associated With Domestic Violence Against Women at Different Stages of Life: Findings From a 19-Year Longitudinal Dataset From the MINIMat Trial in Rural Bangladesh (2001-2020).

Despite the abundance of literature, longitudinal studies evaluating the factors associated with domestic violence (DV) at different stages and over longer periods of women's lives are rare. We evaluated factors associated with physical and sexual DV during pregnancy, at 10-year, and 18-year follow-ups after pregnancy and within a 19-year period of life using a cohort of women (n = 1,126) who participated in the Maternal and Infant Nutrition Interventions, Matlab trial in rural Bangladesh. Data on women's experience of DV, social and economic characteristics, empowerment, and family condition were recorded in a similar manner during pregnancy and at 10- and 18-year follow-ups, using standard questionnaires. Multivariate logistic regression models and generalized estimating equations were used to evaluate factors associated with women's experience of physical and sexual violence at each discrete time point and over a period of 19 years, respectively. During pregnancy, women were more likely to experience violence if they were members of microcredit programs/non-governmental organizations (NGOs), living in an extended family and had lower wealth status. At the 10- and 18-year follow-ups, higher levels of decision-making and higher wealth status were protective against the experience of violence. At the 18-year follow-up, women with larger age differences from their husbands were less likely to experience violence, while membership in microcredit programs/NGOs was associated with higher odds of experiencing violence among women. Within a period of 19 years, a higher level of education, living in an extended family, higher decision-making level and higher wealth index were protective against the experience of violence, while membership in microcredit programs/NGOs was a risk factor. In conclusion, this study showed that correlates of violence might change at different time points in women's life. Thus, policies and programs should consider the stage of women's lives while planning interventions for addressing violence against women.

"You're just constantly on alert": Women and Gender-Diverse People's Experiences of Sexual Violence on Public Transport.

Sexual violence is a public health issue that can be experienced across the life course. Public transport is a key site of sexual violence and harassment experienced by women and gender-diverse people in Australia, although victim-survivor voices have rarely been sought in addressing this issue. Through in-depth qualitative interviews with 41 diverse female and gender-diverse victim-survivors who were staff or students at two Australian universities, we sought to understand their experiences of sexual violence and harassment on public transport. We found that women and gender-diverse people, while often reporting on a significant experience of sexual violence or harassment on public transport, also had other, "everyday" experiences across their life course that impacted how they traveled and their confidence in the world. Overall, we argue that the significant impact of sexual violence and harassment on public transport should be addressed through targeting public transport as a key site for primary prevention of sexual violence and harassment.

Narrative strategies to re-signify sexual violence among gender and sexuality diverse Central American migrants in Tijuana

This study discusses how gender and sexuality diverse Central American migrants, currently staying at shelters in Tijuana, reconstruct experiences of sexual violence in their lives, both during childhood and throughout their migratory journey. It analyses the narrative strategies used to re-signify these experiences in the present, to construct possible futures as sexual subjects. In-depth autobiographical interviews were conducted with nine Central American migrants of diverse genders and sexualities and were analysed using an approach inspired by dramaturgical analysis. We identified the most significant events, characters and settings related to experiences of sexual violence. Three main strategies of resignification were identified: the reaffirmation of pleasure, desire, or consent; the decision to emigrate; and entry into loving-affective relationships. The focus on the analysis of sexual violence before and during the migration event represents a contribution to the ongoing debate on sexuality, gender, and migration. Strategies of resignification allow participants to imagine possible narratives future as subjects who wish to express their gender identity and sexuality freely.

Breaking the silence: exploring women’s experiences of participating in the #MeToo movement

ABSTRACT #MeToo is a digital social movement that has garnered significant attention from feminist scholars since the hashtag obtained viral fame in 2017. Nonetheless, how survivors of sexual violence experience participating in #MeToo remains an understudied question. In this paper we analyze vlogs posted on YouTube under the hashtag to understand how women represent the affordances and drawbacks of participating in the movement, and how they imagine their experiential narratives may affect other survivors. We argue that vloggers represent #MeToo as a forum for breaking the culture of silence that structures sexual violence. As they narrate their experiences, vloggers challenge silencing mechanisms by cultivating voice, resistance strategies, and survivor solidarity, while encouraging viewers to similarly examine their own experiences. Vloggers also identify the emotional burdens associated with disclosure and the damages incurred by confronting rape myths and the entrenched denial of perpetrator guilt as drawbacks of participation.

No Safe Place: Violence among Unaccompanied Refugee Children Seeking Asylum in Kenya

This paper explores the rarely examined experiences of unaccompanied refugee minors in Nairobi, Kenya. Children are thought to comprise up to a third of Nairobi's refugee population, however, there is virtually no data on them. The paper provides a first analysis of a unique dataset to ascertain unaccompanied minor refugees’ experiences of physical, emotional, resource related, and sexual violence. Our research findings indicate widespread violence among refugee children living in Nairobi, and denote the prevalence of several kinds of violence in particular. Our results also reveal which children are most at risk and the type of abuse they are most likely to experience.

A Longitudinal Analysis of Residential Mobility and Experience of Client Violence Among Women Who Exchange Sex in Baltimore.

Residential mobility remains an underexplored yet critical construct that may influence the risk of violence among women who exchange sex. This study examined the longitudinal relationship between residential mobility and experience of client-perpetrated physical or sexual violence among women who exchange sex in Baltimore, Maryland. Participants were at least at 18 years of age, were cisgender women, reported having engaged in transactional sex three or more times within the last 3 months, and were willing to be contacted for 6-, 12-, and 18-month follow-up visits. Analyses of responses from 370 women who exchange sex participating in at least one study visit were conducted. Unadjusted and adjusted Poisson regression models of the association over time between residential mobility and recent experience of physical or sexual violence were fit. Generalized estimating equations with an exchangeable correlation structure and robust variance estimation were used to account for clustering of participants' responses over time. Findings demonstrated that those who had lived in at least four places in the past 6 months had a 39% increased risk of client-perpetrated physical violence (aRR: 1.39; 95% CI: 1.07-1.80; p < .05) and a 63% increased risk of sexual violence (aRR: 1.63; 95% CI: 1.14-2.32; p < .01) compared to their less-mobile counterparts. These findings provide necessary evidence of correlations over time between residential mobility and experience of client-perpetrated violence among women who exchange sex. Strengthening our understanding of how residential mobility intersects with violence is critical for the development of public health interventions that are relevant to women's lives and needs. Future interventions should explore including residential mobility, a critical pillar of housing instability, with efforts to address client-perpetrated violence.

Me Too? Re-encountering youth experiences of sexual violence in post-war England from the vantage point of later life

ABSTRACT Cultural understandings of sexual abuse, sexual harassment and sexual assault have shifted considerably since the 1960s in the United Kingdom and more widely. This article investigates how changing discourses around sexual abuse, harassment and assault are navigated by British women in later life when they narrate experiences that occurred in their youth in the 1960s and early 1970s. It identifies six sites of youth that are relevant to understanding how women narrate experiences of sexual violence: home; school; local outdoor places; workplaces; heterosexual intimacies; independent travel. These sites are associated with different points on a ‘girl to woman’ register, tracing a pathway from the immaturity of girlhood, through the liminal state of young womanhood, into maturity. How interviewees positioned themselves on this register reflects how they understood their youthful selves in different sites, and their past experiences of unwanted sexual attentions. While gender inequality is understood to have limited women’s education and employment opportunities in youth, it is surprisingly absent from narratives of sexual violence. In attending to this absence, we argue that what is at stake for the women in how they navigate shifting cultural discourses is narrating a version of themselves that is agentic and morally responsible.

Experiences of sexual violence and their associations with suicidal ideation and behavior in the past year: an analysis of adults from the 2021 Ace Community Survey.

This research assessed forms of sexual violence and their associations with suicidal ideation among adults identifying on the asexual identity spectrum. A secondary data analysis was conducted among adults, identifying on the asexual spectrum of asexual, gray-asexual, or demisexual, from the 2021 Ace Community Survey (n = 8,715). Multiple logistic regression analyses determined potential associations between sexual violence and suicidal ideation, adjusting for the covariates of age group, gender, education, racial/ethnic minority, employment, and asexual spectrum identity. Demisexual individuals were at statistically greater odds of suicidality compared to gray-asexual and asexual individuals. Sexual violence victims were more likely to be suicidal compared to non-victims. This was especially true for attempted rape and suicidal consideration (OR = 2.10, 95% CI (1.60, 2.75), planning (OR = 1.76, 95% CI (1.32, 2.34), and attempts (OR = 3.15, 95% CI (2.07, 4.81). Asexual victims of sexual violence were more likely to be suicidal compared to non-victims. Demisexual individuals were more likely to be suicidal compared to asexual individuals. These findings demonstrate the need for additional research on sexual violence and suicide.

The Evolution of #MeToo: A Comparative Analysis of Vernacular Practices Over Time and Across Languages

Drawing from a thematic analysis of 960 tweets for English, 960 tweets for German, and 753 tweets for Mandarin, this article explores how the #MeToo movement was taken up and used in different ways in the first 12 months. The article achieves this by drawing on the concept of platform vernacular, identifying three new, at times overlapping, vernacular practices: spotlighting, interconnectivity, and meta conversations. We argue that these vernacular practices function more than simply as the dominant “grammars of communication” in #MeToo but connect individual experiences of sexual violence to broader political structures such as patriarchy, homophobia, xenophobia, and racism. Yet, as our analysis uncovered, while the vernacular practices enabled #MeToo to be politicized, these systems of oppression were not always challenged, but at times, reinforced. As such, while previous research has shown how (affective) vernacular practices shape what we know and feel about sexual violence, this article highlights how vernacular practices fundamentally shape how the public contextualizes and (mis)understands sexual violence as a political issue. Overall, the article contributes to scholarship in the field of new media, feminism, and communication by showing how hashtags are taken up by the public in different ways and how shared vernacular practices emerge across languages, even when the content, focus, or rhetoric may diverge.

(029) Prevalence of Sexual Pain Among Cis-Gender Muslim Women in North America

Abstract Introduction Muslim women represent an underserved and underrepresented minority in North America. It is well documented that unconscious bias impacts the quality of healthcare delivery in the U.S. Stigmas related to sexual health in the Islamic culture may detrimentally impact a Muslim woman's ability to seek care as well. The prevalence rates of lifetime sexual pain disorders among all women, in general, are poorly studied and rates vary from 6 to 40% depending on the study. Even less has been studied in this population with an isolated study from one clinic demonstrating about a 14% prevalence of sexual pain in Muslim women with sexual dysfunction. It is important to understand the burden of sexual pain and dysfunction among Muslim women to improve the quality of their care. Objectives The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of sexual violence, sexual dysfunction, and spiritual abuse among Muslims aged 18-45 and understanding the barriers to seek healthcare and assistance. Methods A national cross-sectional, IRB approved study was implemented to investigate the above. Through the use of the Qualtrics online platform, a 151- question survey was designed and implemented which included questions about demographics as well as questions about religiosity, sexual dysfunction, sexual pain, varying types of sexual abuse, and follow-up treatment. Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling approach via social media, listserv outreach, office visits, and mobilizing key community partners to help disseminate the survey. Descriptive statistics were utilized to better understand the prevalence and will further attempt to examine the correlation between barriers to seeking assistance and identity, attitudes, and experiences of sexual violence. Results From March 2020 until November 2020, a total of 704 Muslims ranged from 18-45 years old across the United States and Canada responded to the survey. Of those, 86% identified themselves as cis-gender women. Of those women, 47% chose to answer the questions regarding sexual dysfunction and sexual pain and almost half of the respondents (42%) admitted to having a history of sexual pain and dysfunction. Among those women who had a history of sexual pain, 65% admitted that they had never sought help for their pain from any healthcare provider. Conclusions Sexual pain and sexual dysfunction are under-reported among Muslim women and there are clear barriers that need to be overcome to alleviate their suffering. This is the first national study of its kind that has looked at sexual dysfunction and sexual pain, specifically, and is a great stepping stone to further analysis and investigation. At least half of the cis-gender women in this national survey admitted to some experience with sexual dysfunction, more specifically sexual pain, in their lifetime and more than two-thirds of those did not seek treatment. Cultural and religious stigmas, as well as possible barriers to seeking healthcare by lack of cultural competence training by many providers, may be contributing to their lack of follow up for treatment. With additional studies and analysis as well as building awareness, we can better understand how to eliminate barriers and stigmas and increase education for this population. Disclosure No.

Childhood and Adult Sexual Violence Exposures as Predictors of PTSD, Dissociation, and Substance Use in Women in Jail

ABSTRACT Women involved in the criminal legal system report high rates of interpersonal violence, particularly sexual violence, and mental health problems. Although existing research has linked experiences of interpersonal violence to multiple negative mental health outcomes, few researchers have examined concurrent psychopathology as an outcome of child and adult sexual violence in system-involved women. The purpose of this study was to examine child sexual abuse (CSA) and adult sexual violence, while controlling for other forms of interpersonal violence, as predictors of current symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PSTD), substance use disorder (SUD), and dissociation in women in jail in the Mountain West. Randomly selected participants (N = 146) completed clinician-administered measures of trauma histories and mental health symptoms. The majority of the women (73%) reported experiences of CSA and about half reported experiences of adult sexual violence. Over half of the women reported symptoms consistent with current probable PTSD, about 20% reported dissociation symptoms in a clinical range, and over 70% met criteria for a SUD in the past year. The proposed model was tested with path analysis. CSA significantly predicted current symptoms of PTSD while adult sexual violence exposure predicted symptoms of SUD and dissociation. These results illustrate the high rates of sexual violence exposure as well as the complexity of mental health needs associated with these exposures in system-involved women. Findings highlight the need to comprehensively assess incarcerated women’s trauma exposure and psychological distress to better meet the needs of this population.

Relationship of Sexual Violence to Depression in Female Students of Faculty of Medicine, Pelita Harapan University

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background: &lt;/strong&gt;Sexual violence can take many forms to anyone. The increase in the number of sexual violence against women in Indonesia is quite significant. These incidents are reported to occur frequently in women in young adulthood. These experiences can have long-term effects, one of which is depression. There are several studies that show an association between sexual violence and the incidence of depression. However, there has not been much quantitative research to look at the relationship on this matter in Indonesia, especially on female students. This study aims to understand the relationship between sexual violence and the incidence of depression in female students of the Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Pelita Harapan.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methods: &lt;/strong&gt;This study use a cross-sectional study design. The data has been collected using questionnaires filled in by the respondents. This study involved 149 female students of the Faculty of Medicine, Pelita Harapan University. The results of the study were processed and statistically analyzed using SPSS 25.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Result: &lt;/strong&gt;Based on research data, there are 149 respondents from female students of the Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Pelita Harapan. with a mean age of 19.29 (SD = 1.086). The youngest age of the respondent is 17 years old and the oldest is 24 years old. A total of 55 respondents had experienced sexual violence. Based on the results of the Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) questionnaire, 16% had mild depression, 9% had moderate depression, and 2% had severe depression. Chi-square test showed a significant relationship between experiences of sexual violence and the incidence of depression, with p &amp;lt;0.001.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions:&lt;/strong&gt; Sexual violence is related to the incidence of depression in female students of the Faculty of Medicine, Pelita Harapan University.

Violence across the Life Course and Implications for Intervention Design: Findings from the Maisha Fiti Study with Female Sex Workers in Nairobi, Kenya.

We examined violence experiences among Female Sex Workers (FSWs) in Nairobi, Kenya, and how these relate to HIV risk using a life course perspective. Baseline behavioural-biological surveys were conducted with 1003 FSWs June-December 2019. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to estimate the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for associations of life course factors with reported experience of physical or sexual violence in the past 6 months. We found substantial overlap between violence in childhood, and recent intimate and non-intimate partner violence in adulthood, with 86.9% reporting one or more types of violence and 18.7% reporting all three. Recent physical or sexual violence (64.9%) was independently associated with life course factors, including a high WHO Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) score (AOR = 7.92; 95% CI:4.93-12.74) and forced sexual debut (AOR = 1.97; 95% CI:1.18-3.29), as well as having an intimate partner (AOR = 1.67; 95% CI:1.25-2.23), not having an additional income to sex work (AOR = 1.54; 95% CI:1.15-2.05), having four or more dependents (AOR = 1.52; 95% CI:0.98-2.34), recent hunger (AOR = 1.39; 95% CI:1.01-1.92), police arrest in the past 6 months (AOR = 2.40; 95% CI:1.71-3.39), condomless last sex (AOR = 1.46; 95% CI:1.02-2.09), and harmful alcohol use (AOR = 3.34; 95% CI:1.74-6.42). Interventions that focus on violence prevention during childhood and adolescence should help prevent future adverse trajectories, including violence experience and HIV acquisition.

Erased, Hidden, or Missing: Black Women’s Experiences in the Fight Against College Campus Sexual Violence

Abstract: Sexual violence is one of the most visible, challenging, and vexing problems on college campuses. Further, research shows a history of racialized trauma—one that dates back to slavery and continues to bear witness to psychological harms of fear, self-blame, and guilt. In this historical context, Black undergraduate women who have been sexually assaulted often remain silent. Yet college administrators continue to respond to sexual violence from an identity-neutral and dominant narrative leaving women of color erased, hidden, or missing in the fight against campus sexual violence. Several studies have focused on sexual violence against women in college. Due to the lack of diversity in the research samples, this qualitative case study sought to illuminate Black women’s voices as they described their sexual violence experiences and reflected on the ways, if any, their intersecting identities (i.e., race and gender) impacted their sexual violence experiences while attending a Historically White Institution. Findings indicate that Black women described their sexual violence as psychologically impactful, socially isolating, overwhelming to report or seek help, faith evoking, compounded by social media and COVID-19, and leading to manifesting resilience. Findings also suggest that Black women’s intersecting identities related to gender and race affected their experience and led them to adhere to a culture of silence, evoke racial consciousness, and be viewed as hyper-sexualized. Based on the study findings, recommendations and implications are presented.

‘What a lying slut’: the (re)production of rape myths in online misogyny towards women disclosing their experiences of rape through the #MeToo movement

Online misogyny is a form of online abuse against women and girls which is rooted in a hatred and mistrust of women which seeks to silence them and reinforce gender inequalities. This study extends existing research in this area by examining online misogyny within the context of the #MeToo movement. The #MeToo movement created a safe space for women to share their experiences of sexual violence, and while this promoted solidarity, support and healing, there was also an abusive backlash towards the women involved. Based on a thematic analysis of abusive YouTube comments directed at women sharing their experiences of rape, it was found that 69 per cent of abusive comments were characterised by one or more of the seven rape myths: she asked for it, it wasn’t really rape, he didn’t mean to, she wanted it, she lied, rape is a trivial event, and rape is a deviant event. This article discusses each rape myth and demonstrates how rape myths are (re)produced in online misogyny towards victims/survivors of rape and concludes by arguing this response attempts to discredit victims/survivors, the #MeToo movement and disrupt the safe space the movement created to derail the collective conversation about men’s violence against women and girls.

Standing on top of society’s sexist load: Gate-keeping activism and feminist respectability politics in the case of the Iranian MeToo Movement

Over the past three years, Iran has witnessed the birth and growth of an unprecedented movement, whereby countless women have come forward to narrate their experiences of sexual violence. Despite its innovative characteristics and significant accomplishments over a short period of time, academic scholarship has paid little attention to the Iranian MeToo movement to this date. This study aims towards bridging this gap by critically exploring the backlash the movement has generated. Taking a recently published open letter titled ‘inner critique’ as a case study, it deploys critical textual analysis, combined with a thematic analysis of data driven from in-depth interviews, to unpack the discourses used in the letter by placing them in their historical and material contexts and exposing their relation to pre-existing victim-blaming tropes and rape-scripts. The analysis further sheds light on the classed and gendered respectability politics through which Iranian feminists negotiate status distinctions and reproduce inner hierarchies of power. It concludes by arguing that, rather than offering necessary constructive critique, the open letter builds on and extends the state-backed discourse which depicts feminists as opportunistic agents of foreign political influence, in order to discredit their activism and suppress their radical potential for bringing about transformative change.

"'I am a Man. How Could I Possibly Have Been Raped?' Men Making Sense of Their Experiences With Sexual Violence".

Sexual violence among college students is an enduring issue that can shape adverse outcomes for victim survivors. The gender dynamics of college sexual assault and rape include rates of women overrepresented as victims and men as perpetrators. Dominant cultural frames reinforcing the (hetero)normative gendered sexual scripts of masculinity often preclude men from being considered as legitimate victims of sexual violence, despite evidence documenting their victimization. The present study contributes to knowledge of men's experiences of sexual violence by sharing the narratives of 29 college men survivors and how they make sense of their experiences. Through open and focused thematic qualitative coding, findings revealed how men struggled to understand their victimization experiences within cultural frameworks that exclude men as victims. Participants engaged in complex linguistic processes (i.e., "epiphanies") to process their unwanted sexual encounter, in addition to altering their sexual behavior after experiencing sexual violence. Findings can inform programing and interventions to be more inclusive of supporting men as victims.

The Impact of Dissemination of Sexual Violent Issues on Social Media on The Group of Women Living Alone

This research paper seeks to examine how the spread of violence on social media affects the group of women living alone. The study used several methods to achieve this. Firstly by analysing news article headlines or other reports of sexual violence on social media, and secondly, by interviews with women living alone. The results show that different social media will report news about sexual violence in different ways; for example, TikTok presents events in a sensory stimulating way like videos, which will spread much more and evoke strong emotions in many people. On the other hand, Twitter mostly features official or traditional news agencies reporting on cases, with more emphasis on legal measures to reduce the fear of the public. Therefore, these two social media platforms can bring different feelings to women living alone through different modes of presentation. The interviews with the group of women living alone illustrate the different thoughts and emotions that most women living alone have when they share their experiences of sexual violence or talk about their experiences. It also shows the unequal status of women in this society and the pressure of public opinion

The role of community healthcare professionals in discussing sexual assault experiences during obstetrics and gynecological healthcare appointments

BackgroundNearly half of adult women in the US report experiencing sexual assault, with almost one-fifth reporting rape. For many sexual assault survivors, healthcare professionals are the first point of contact and disclosure. This study aimed to understand how healthcare professionals working in community settings perceived their role in discussing sexual violence experiences with women during obstetrical and gynecological healthcare appointments. The secondary purpose was to compare healthcare professionals’ perspectives with the patients’ to determine how sexual violence conversations should occur in these environments.MethodsData were collected in two phases. Phase 1 consisted of 6 focus groups (Sept-Dec, 2019) with women aged 18–45 (n = 22) living in Indiana who sought community-based or private healthcare for women’s reproductive healthcare needs. Phase 2 included 20 key-informant interviews with non-physician healthcare professionals (i.e., NP, RN, CNM, doula, pharmacist, chiropractor) living in Indiana (September 2019-May 2020) who provided community-based women’s reproductive healthcare. Focus groups and interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using thematic analyses. HyperRESEARCH assisted in data management and organization.ResultsThere were three resulting themes: (1) healthcare professionals’ approaches to screening for a history of sexual violence varied depending on how they ask, what setting they work in, and type of professional asking; (2) healthcare experiences can compound traumatic experiences and create distrust with survivors; and (3) sexual violence impacts patient healthcare experiences through what services they seek, how professionals may interact with them, and what professionals they are willing to utilize.ConclusionsFindings offered insight into actionable and practical strategies for enhancing sexual violence screening and discussions in community-based women’s reproductive health settings. The findings offer strategies to address barriers and facilitators among community healthcare professionals and the people they serve. Incorporating healthcare professional and patient experiences and preferences for violence-related discussions during obstetrical and gynecological healthcare appointments can assist in violence prevention efforts, improve patient-professional rapport, and yield better health outcomes.

"It is in the Nature of Men": The Normalization of Non-Consensual Sex and Intimate Partner Violence Against Women with Acquired Physical Disabilities in South Africa.

This study employed a cross-sectional, qualitative individual interview methodology to explore South African women with physical disabilities' experiences of intimate partner and sexual violence, inclusive of non-consensual and coerced sexual intercourse. For the participants, disability was a factor that intersected with gender norms to create vulnerability to abuse, and that patriarchal ideologies constructing how women should perform their gendered roles in marriage or sexual partnerships, as well as disability stigma, exacerbated this vulnerability. It is important to develop understandings of the different risk factors for violence - at the individual level and in the context of dyadic relationships - to develop programming to better support women.