Sexual Scripts Research Articles

Word Play: A Top-Down Approach to Text Analysis of BDSM Practitioners’ Written Language

Power play, or consensual power changing between “Dominant” and “submissive” role partners, is common practice within BDSM culture. In fact, to many BDSM practitioners, their D/s role is an integral part of their sexual identity and behavior, which informs not only their sexual scripts, but also their non-sexual social interactions. This two-part research study used computerized text analysis to determine whether BDSM practitioners relative to non-practitioners, and among D/s role identities, differed in their language use. Study 1 utilized a sample of 13,374 web-scraped comments from BDSM- and non-BDSM-related subreddits. Study 2 used a recruited sample of 285 self-identified Dominants, submissives, switches, and non-BDSM practitioners. Results suggest that BDSM practitioners consistently use role-specific language outside of scenes and sexual contexts. Findings from this top-down approach, coupled with a bottom-up approach published previously (Crane & Ireland, 2022), intend to facilitate a comprehensive analysis to inform future research of marginalized persons with diverse sexualities.

Changes in Adolescent Heterosexual Behaviors from the 1980s to the Present in Various Western Countries: A Systematic Review

Adolescence is a stage of significant intrapersonal and interpersonal changes, influenced by cultural and historical shifts. This study aims to analyze the changes in heterosexual behaviors among adolescents in Western countries over the past 50 years approximately. For this purpose, we conducted a systematic review following the PRISMA model, utilizing the online databases EBSCO, WoS, and Scopus, covering the period from 1980 to 2024, across ten European countries. The review focused on studies published in scientific journals with regional or national samples. In addition to the 30 selected studies, three more were included due to their relevance as cited in the selected articles. Despite the considerable methodological heterogeneity, the results showed a relative stabilization of the differences in sexual behaviors of boys and girls throughout time. Those differences were more evident in Southern European countries. Some changes were also noted, such as the delay in the initiation of the first sexual intercourse, a trend observed over the last decade. The findings are discussed in terms of the sexual script theory, highlighting the importance of these mental frameworks in the heteronormative sexual socialization of boys and girls. Future research should emphasize the diversity of heterosexual behaviors, their significance, and the emotional experiences that accompany them.

Rapping about pleasure: the role of Black women’s rap music in shaping Black women’s sexual attitudes

Black women’s sexuality has historically been constrained by stereotypes and a discourse focused on risks rather than pleasure. Early Black women rappers initiated vital conversations about sexual pleasure, with contemporary Black women rappers continuing to challenge norms and define Black women’s sexualities. Grounded in Hip-Hop Feminism and Sexual Script Theory, this study explores how Black women interpret and find meaning in sexual pleasure-focused lyrics in Black women’s rap music and how these interpretations shape their sexual self-concepts and navigation of systemic oppression. Through semi-structured interviews with 20 Black women aged 20–42 years who frequently listen to Black women rappers, thematic and discourse analysis identified three key themes: (a) prioritising sexual pleasure as a means of self-empowerment; (b) practising assertiveness as a means to achieving sexual pleasure; and (c) celebrating the body as an act of sexual pleasure. Black women rappers’ unapologetic discussion of sexual pleasure empowers Black women to reclaim sexuality on their own terms, independent of dominant societal narratives. This study extends existing literature on Hip-Hop Feminism by demonstrating the transformative potential of culturally relevant media in fostering sex-positive attitudes and advocates for incorporating these messages into sexual health education for Black women.

In Their Own Words: Muslim Women Reconstruct the Sexual Script

Using semi-structured, qualitative interviews of 25 heterosexual Muslim women residing in the US, the author examines the extent to which respondents simultaneously constructed and deconstructed the gender dichotomy when explaining sexuality, countering reductionist accounts of Muslim women’s sexuality. Integrating concepts of religiosity and gender norms, respondents reconfigured the dominant discourse of power and sexuality in innovative ways. One of the main themes that emerged from this research is that male sex drive discourse, typically associated with power and “machismo” within the traditional sexual script, was reimagined by Muslim women as an indicator of women’s greater strength in the eyes of God.

Instagram vixens: the racialized sexual scripts of erotic labor online

ABSTRACT Despite growing interest in the ways information and communication technologies shape labor, few studies have accounted for the racialized sexualization of erotic labor. This study examines how Black women exotic dancers deploy racialized sexual scripts in the content they generate on the mobile social networking application Instagram. As erotic influencers, these women engage in multifaceted and multimodal erotic self-presentations both within and beyond the strip club. This article presents data from a digital ethnography of 73 Black female exotic dancers located in the southeastern United States, as well as a content analysis of the digital media files they created on Instagram. The findings suggest four distinct sexual scripts that these Instagram users perform: virtual cover girl, erotic professional, boudoir baddie, and assets model. Findings demonstrate Black women use smartphone and social networking technological features to create presentations of femininity, desirability, and sensuality that simultaneously subvert and adhere to the controlling images that define Western ideologies on race and sexuality. Ultimately, this article argues for the need to account for the social and cultural contexts in which the affordances of networked communication technologies that permeate contemporary erotic labor operate.

A thin line between consent and abuse - Reflections on sexual experiences among Swedish young adults with intellectual disabilities.

Research shows that young adults with intellectual disabilities struggle to understand the social codes embedded in sexual situations. This may lead to an incomprehension of sexual consent, or when consenting to sex may lead to abuse. This qualitative study aimed to gain an in-depth understanding of sexual experiences and perceptions about sexual consent among Swedish young adults with intellectual disabilities. The data comprise 22 semi-structured interviews with young adults aged 18-35 with intellectual disabilities, thematically analyzed using sexual script theory as a theoretical framework. Four themes emerged from the analysis: Setting the sexual scene, Sexual self-awareness, Sexual communication and the necessity of clarification and Striving for a balance. The results show that the participants had a variety of sexual experiences and challenges associated with sexual consent, but also an agency that favors sexual situations. Further research is necessary to understand the complexities of sexual consent in this population.

Extending sexual scripting theory through critical discursive psychology: An analytical approach to explore the performance of sexual identities

Sexual scripting theory, a widely used tool in sexuality research, was originally developed by Gagnon and Simon to illuminate the social nature of sexual practices and identity construction. Later, they sought to develop the theory further to align with a social constructionist perspective. However, vestiges of individualism and cognitivism haunt sexual scripting theory largely due to the use of the symbolic interactionist concept of performance. To address this, we draw on the performance–performativity approach in critical discursive psychology that develops the notion of performance from a discursive perspective and offers a way of extending sexual scripting theory that offers a truly social explication of sexual identity construction. We provide a practical illustration of this extended theorising, drawing on data from a project about young people’s online engagement with pornography. We demonstrate how developing the notion of sexual scripts as discursive resources that enable the performance of sexual identities allows us to illuminate the social and situated nature of identity construction. This framework enhances understanding of the process of sexual identity construction and provides a valuable tool for studying how broader sexual scripts that are sociohistorically specific provide a scaffolding for the ways an individual can construct sexual identities. Overall, this paper offers a valuable contribution to discursive scholarship in psychology by presenting a nuanced analytical framework that coheres with a constructionist, performative view of identity.

Women’s Sexual Agency, Pleasure, and Orgasm in Popular Netflix Series: A Quantitative Content Analysis of Mixed-Gender Scenes

Media representations of sexuality can play a relevant role in the development of gender stereotypes and sexual learning processes. In the current pre-registered study, we examined the representation of sexuality in content on Netflix, a dominant force in global mass media consumption. We coded 271 mixed-gender sexual scenes across seven highly popular Netflix series for orgasm portrayal, depiction of sexual behaviors, including clitoral stimulation, and gendered sexual scripts (i.e., initiation, control, and expression of desires). Our results revealed a nuanced picture of women’s sexual pleasure representation. Women’s orgasms were depicted less frequently than men’s, although orgasm portrayal was generally rare. Sexual behaviors were mostly limited to penile-vaginal intercourse, though cunnilingus was depicted more frequently than fellatio. Regarding gendered sexual scripts, women were portrayed as equally sexually agentic as men, initiating sexual encounters, taking control, and expressing their needs and desires. Our findings indicate that this content simultaneously reinforces and challenges gender stereotypes related to sexual experiences, highlighting the need for sexual educators to critically address the realism of mainstream media portrayals to foster a nuanced understanding of sexuality and pleasure.

Trans-becoming: decoding interactionist trans identity in Nagarkirtan (2019) and Chitrangada: The Crowning Wish (2012)

The unique characteristics of Indian trans-identity are shaped by cultural intricacies, setting it apart from its Western counterparts. Despite facing marginalisation in mainstream Indian society, the intricacies of their constructed trans-culture further complicate their experiences. According to the interactionist perspective of gender identity within sociological theory, an individual’s interactions with peers, family, and society influence the development of their gender identity. Examining this concept within the diverse Indian context reveals the significant nuances of Indian trans-identity. Two Bengali-Indian films, Kaushik Ganguly’s Nagarkirtan (2019) and Rituparno Ghosh’s Chitrangada: The Crowning Wish (2012), depict the intense and challenging journeys of individuals embracing their trans identities. This research aims to analyse the films from an interactionist perspective, exploring how the Indian cultural discourses portrayed in the films influence the formation of trans identities. The findings suggest that the development of trans identity involves complex processes influenced by social interactions, where conflicts between one’s generalised self and instinctual self arise due to sexual digression. Additionally, this study indicates that the sexual scripting of trans individuals is influenced by various factors, including class, culture, financial status, and social position, making it challenging to conform to the binary gender script of a normalised society. This qualitative research utilises the Interactionist theory of gender identity to analyse the two Bengali-Indian films.

Examining the Relationship Between Condom Use Self-Efficacy, Sexual Empowerment, and Sexual Health Knowledge Among Latino College Men

Despite recent increases in institutional efforts to improve sexual health safety, few studies have explored Latino college men’s sexual risk behaviors. Considering prior research examining links between sexual risk behaviors and factors such as condom use self-efficacy, sexual health knowledge and education, and sexual empowerment, it is critical to examine their influence on Latino college men’s sexual health in the context of cultural values and sexual scripts. Quantitative cross-sectional design and linear regression models were utilized to analyze responses from 177 Latino college men attending a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) in the Southeastern region of the United States (U.S.). Our findings revealed that higher satisfaction with sexual health knowledge and education when obtained from informal sources such as family members and peers significantly increased condom use self-efficacy. Contrastingly, greater levels of sexual empowerment significantly decreased Latino college men’s condom use self-efficacy. Findings underline the importance of considering the dynamic interaction of multilevel factors and the sexual decision-making process from a developmentally appropriate, evidence-based, and culturally syntonic lens to address sexual risk behaviors among Latino college men students.

Cultural Factors as Determinant of Teen Pregnancy Prevalence in Kakamega County, Kenya

Culture shapes the development and expression of human behavior. Teenage behaviors are partly a product of prevalent cultural trends. This study examined the relationship between cultural factors and teen pregnancy prevalence in Kakamega County, Kenya. The study was anchored on the sexual script theory developed by Gagnon and Simon in 1973 and the symbolic interaction theory advanced by Blumer in 1969. The research was descriptive and cross-sectional in design. It targeted teenagers (aged 15–19 years) and key informants in Kakamega County. Purposive sampling was used to select Butere and Ikolomani sub-counties, random sampling to select two wards in each sub-county, and systematic sampling to obtain participants. The sample size was 438, calculated using the Yamane formula. Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires and key informant interviews. Quantitative data was analyzed using STATA version 18. Descriptive statistics were used to generate frequencies and percentages, and the chi-square test as well as binary logistic regression were used to determine the association between variables. Values were considered significant at a p-value <0.05. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically. The study findings revealed that cultural factors, such as sex discussion at family and community levels, parental strictness, contraceptive use, teen marriage, contraceptive non-use, decision-making power in marriage, religious views and affiliation, and family reaction to pregnancy, contributed at varying degrees to teen pregnancy prevalence. The study results found a significant relationship between cultural factors and teen pregnancy prevalence in Kakamega County, Kenya (p<0.001). It is recommended that parents and other stakeholders create a conducive environment where free conversations and training on healthy sexual behaviors among teenagers are possible.

When the hunter plays the hunted: heterosexual Chinese women’s negotiations with hegemonic sexual scripts on dating apps

ABSTRACT Sexual scripts are the behavioral patterns in people’s performance of sexualities. As hegemonic patriarchal sexual scripts assign submissive roles to women in heterosexual intimacy, this study explores how heterosexual women can take a proactive role in online dating with the aid of dating app affordances. Based on interviews with 18 heterosexual women living in urban China, our findings show that women can strategically craft their user profiles to not only attract certain types of men they desire, but also filter out undesirable men. They can use the topics they extract from men’s profiles to take the initiative to start conversations with men when they are willing to. By switching media platforms and/or communication modalities, they can fuel relationship development. Meanwhile, they manage sexual risks through communication with their dates about sex and precautions against unexpected situations in hook-ups. They have also created positive meanings for casual sex: They regard women’s right to engage in hook-ups as a condition for gender equality, perceive casual sexual relations as a form of meaningful social connection, and endow such relations with romantic potential. They may also hold positive attitudes toward their dating app use, as they may have derived confidence and sociability from it.

Women’s Pornography Use Patterns and Sexuality Education in U.S. Public Schools

This study investigated the relationship between sexuality education in U.S. public schools and women's pornography use. Utilizing quantitative methods, we examined a sample of women attending U.S. public schools who reported regular pornography use. Results revealed that, regardless of the type of sexuality education received, women exhibited similar rates of pornography use, with 60% reporting its use. A substantial portion (69%) of the women began using pornography during childhood or adolescence. Women who received abstinence only sexuality education reported higher frequencies of pornography use compared to their comprehensive sexuality education counterparts. About 79% of women using pornography perceived it as a source of sexuality learning, especially regarding sexual pleasure. However, they expressed reluctance in using pornography for sexual education and did not consider it a preferred method for learning about sexuality. The findings suggest the need for comprehensive sexuality education that addresses essential topics, such as sexual pleasure and sexual script development, to cater to women’s diverse learning needs, ideally taught by parents or primary caregivers, but may be necessary for public education in the absence of parental instruction. Policymakers and educators should bridge these gaps to develop more effective sexuality education curricula. This study contributes valuable insights, highlighting the importance of an inclusive approach to sexuality education in U.S. public schools. Future research should explore the implications of different sexuality education approaches on women's sexual development and well-being, emphasizing comprehensive education to foster healthy sexual behaviors among women.

Words Can Hurt: A Taxonomy of Verbally Pressured Sexual Exploitation in the SES-V

ABSTRACT This article describes the development of the Verbally Pressured Sexual Exploitation module of the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES)-Victimization (introduced by Koss et al., 2024). This module assesses the use of verbal or nonphysical, paraverbal pressure to obtain sexual acts without freely given permission. An interdisciplinary team of seven sexual exploitation researchers collaborated to create this module, with consultation from the full 15 member SES-V revision collaboration team. In this paper, we describe our process for developing this module. We briefly review empirical literature and theoretical frameworks (e.g., rape scripts, normative sexual scripts, intersectionality, and sex-positivity) that informed this work. Summary tables compare the SES-V items to verbal pressure items in prior versions of the SES and to other existing measures of violence. The comprehensive taxonomy developed herein includes six domains of Verbally Pressured sexual exploitation across 11 item stems. The components of the taxonomy include: positive verbal pressure, neutral verbal pressure, negative verbal pressure, substance-related pressure, postural violence, and threats to critical resources. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research, with priority on intersectional research that can illuminate the phenomenology and contexts of sexual exploitation against marginalized groups.

Navigating Conflicting Ideals of Masculinity: A Qualitative Study of the Experiences of Male Partners of Women with Vulvodynia

ABSTRACT Vulvodynia, a long-term genital pain disorder with a high lifetime prevalence, profoundly impacts both the affected women and their partners. However, the experiences of these partners have been under-researched. Using Braun and Clarke’s thematic analysis, this qualitative study explored the experiences of male partners of women with vulvodynia. In individual interviews with seven men (20–32 years), four themes were identified: “Trying to be a good and caring partner,” “Fear of sexual and emotional rejection,” “Feelings of insecurity and being misled,” and “Keeping up the façade.” Despite efforts to support their partners, the men often faced rejection, leading to insecurities about their attractiveness, the relationship’s future, and their ability to conform to social expectations. They coped by concealing insecurities from their partners and overemphasizing traditional masculinity among peers. We discuss these results using sexual script theory, suggesting that gendered sexual scripts play a significant role in relationships with vulvodynia, with prevailing cultural assumptions regarding masculinity challenging men’s ability to be simultaneously caring and sexual. As a result, the men found themselves negotiating two contrasting ideals associated with masculine behavior: those of good caregiver and assertive, virile sexual partner. Our research suggests that male partners of women with vulvodynia tend to be left alone to deal with the resulting ambivalence and distress. Supporting these men could benefit both parties in managing vulvodynia.

“The loving queer gaze”: The epistemological significance of queer joy

AbstractThis article contends with queer joy as an epistemology to highlight an affective experience that grounds a basis for revising dominant approaches to sexual ethics. Drawing on findings from a mixed‐methods study with 100 2SLGBTQ+ young adults from Canada and the US, we argue that queer and trans people mobilize queer sexual joy as an epistemology of script breaking that led participants to explore freedom and play, enjoy novel forms of care and communality, and to challenge oppression. We found that 2SLGBTQ+ young adults are undermining dominant sexual cultures which perpetuate gender‐based violence through cisheteronormative logics of objectification and dominance. Rather than simply producing misery, normative sex and gender regimes produced a disorientation among 2SLGBTQ+ young adults which was fruitful for breaking sexual scripts and developing approaches to sex and relationships grounded in greater authenticity, creativity, reciprocity, play, and joy. We propose that by taking queer joy as a way of knowing, we may learn how queer and trans people negotiate the performativity of gender and sex, their own bodily knowledge, and the epistemic injustices that have precluded this knowledge from being valued. Pushing against the “joy deficit” in sociology that constrains the field to the study of the misery that minority communities face, this paper not only demonstrates what sociologists might learn from the texture of queer and trans lives, but also how these lessons can help to undermine cisheteronormativity as a root cause of gender‐based violence.

‘An emotional stalemate’: cold intimacies in heterosexual young people’s dating practices

In this article, we consider how heterosexual young people navigate emotionality in their early dating practices. We draw on the ‘cold intimacy’ thesis (Hochschild, 1994; Illouz, 2007; 2012; 2018) that posits that emotions have increasingly become things to be evaluated, measured, quantified and categorised. Within the context of intimate relationships, research suggests that while young people are often open about the physical aspects of casual sex, they are reluctant to demonstrate emotional attachment, with vulnerability deemed shameful (Wade, 2017). Drawing on in-depth interviews with UK-based dating app users aged 18–25, we find that emotional attachment is rarely articulated, and is seen as a sign of weakness in the early stages of a relationship. For our participants, emotions become bargaining chips, with the ‘winner’ being the party with the least to lose, the least invested and the least emotionally attached. While this applies to both the young men and women interviewed, our findings demonstrate a gendered imbalance of power in intimate relationships, as female participants express a fear of emotional hurt, while male participants work to avoid potential rejection and humiliation. As a result, most connections remain suspended in what we identify as the ‘failed talking stage’. This is underpinned by the removal of channels of accountability, coupled with entrenched heteronormative sexual scripts shaping gender roles at this stage.

(Dis)Similarities in Attitudes Between Partners About Women’s Solo Masturbation: A Dyadic Approach to Solo Masturbation and Its Associations with Sexual Satisfaction

ABSTRACT Attitudes among couples about women’s solo masturbation are not well understood. The primary aim of this study was to assess (dis)similarities in attitudes between partners about women’s solo masturbation and associations of each partner’s attitudes with women’s and their partners’ sexual satisfaction. One hundred and four mixed-sex couples (M = 27.43 years), recruited through social networking websites and Prolific (an online research participant platform), completed an online survey about demographics, their experiences of solo masturbation, and validated measures of attitudes about women’s masturbation and sexual satisfaction. Dyadic data were analyzed using correlational methods and the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model. Women and their partners reported similar and positive attitudes about women’s solo masturbation. For women, reports of positive attitudes toward women’s solo masturbation were associated with both their own and their partner’s sexual satisfaction; there were no associations for men. The role of solo masturbation within romantic relationships is complex but our results support the idea that women’s masturbation is now less stigmatized than commonly thought. Normalizing and including masturbation in the sexual script for individuals in relationships may help maximize their, and their partners,’ sexual satisfaction.

Queer joy-centered sexuality education: offering a novel framework for gender-based violence prevention

2SLGBTQ+ people face disproportionately high rates of gender-based violence (GBV) compared to cisgender heterosexual people. Scholars have predominantly responded to this violence by reporting on victimization, which homogenizes queer and trans life as misery. To avoid reproducing this joy-deficit, we propose a novel approach that centers queer sexual joy. As rape culture is symptomatic of cisheteronormativity, queer sexual joy is a useful analytic with which to subvert GBV. Drawing on findings from the Queer Sexual Joy project, a mixed-methods study involving 100 young adults from Canada and the US, we introduce six recommendations for a framework to focalize queer and trans sexual joy in GBV prevention education, including: 1) containers for safety; 2) communication strategies; 3) bodily autonomy; 4) trauma-informed, anti-oppression, 5) pleasure; and 6) dissociation and grounding practices. We propose that GBV education rooted in queer sexual joy would reorient all youth from hegemonic sexual scripts and provide a frame for more just sexual cultures.

Affective learning: The role of affect in understanding representations of sexuality in postfeminist television series

This article is a theoretical exploration of the nuanced connections between the notion of affect and representations of sexuality in postfeminist television series. Drawing on gender studies, media studies and affect theory, it addresses the manifestation of postfeminist ideals in popular media and how it shapes the audience's understanding of gender and sexuality, acknowledging the complex negotiation of sexual identities, and emphasising the role of affective experiences in viewer engagement and interpretation of sexual scripts. Contributing to the ongoing dialogue on feminism, media, and affect theory, the study theoretically examines the affective dimensions of postfeminist learning to enhance comprehension of emotional responses to depictions of sex on contemporary television, using the series Fleabag as an illustrative example.