Sexual Racism Research Articles

Racial preferences in dating apps: an experimental approach

ABSTRACT Dating apps can amplify the number and diversity of our potential dates while also enabling us to filter and choose people who are more similar to us. Homogamous preferences and rooted problems like sexual racism can lead users to maintain or even reify a racialized sexual hierarchy that privileges Whiteness. Whether dating apps help build a more racially diverse world or reinforce discrimination is an open question. This study contributes to this debate by analyzing the racial preferences of thousands of users of Tinder, one of the most popular dating apps worldwide. Through a field experiment that displays (otherwise equivalent) female and male Black and White profiles, we compared the choices of people looking for heterosexual and same-gender relationships. The results show that respondents in all groups favor White profiles. Even though previous research sustains that same-gender couples are less racially homogamous, this was not confirmed in this experiment. In fact, the most surprising finding is that the preference for White partners is relatively stronger for lesbian women. However, when predicting the likelihood of a profile being liked, gender and sexual orientation are far more decisive than race. These findings support the need for an intersectional approach toward race, sexual orientation, and gender and to keep studying the effects of dating app use on mating outcomes.

Sexual Racism on Geosocial Networking Applications and Identity Outness Among Sexual Minority Men in the US

ABSTRACT Although the use of geosocial networking (GSN) applications for relationship seeking is prevalent among sexual minority men (SMM), SMM of color may be vulnerable to sexual racism online. Little is known about how sexual racism relates to SMM of color’s identity outness, which is integral to the minority stress model and the focus of this study. Eighty SMM, recruited through social media (53.7% racial/ethnic minority), reported their experiences of race-based discrimination on GSN apps and identity outness. Chi-squared and Fisher’s tests examined differences in race-based discrimination online by participants’ race/ethnicity. A factorial MANOVA was performed on outness to family, peers, and healthcare providers. Nearly one-third of participants experienced race-based discrimination online. Higher percentages of SMM of color experienced race-based discrimination than White SMM. SMM who experienced race-based discrimination online reported lower outness to family than those who had not. Post-hoc analyses revealed that Asian SMM reported consistently lower outness than other groups. Our findings resonated with the mediation framework of minority stress, suggesting that sexual racism online may be a distal stressor that contributes to the group-specific process of identity outness. This also illustrated the importance of addressing sexual racism on GSN apps to buffer existing stress with outness among SMM of color.

A qualitative exploration of minority stress, mental health, and sexual health among Arab immigrant sexual minority men in the United States.

To examine experiences of immigration, sexual minority stressors, and mental health and sexual health among first-generation (born outside of the United States) Arab immigrant sexual minority men (SMM) in the United States. We conducted in-depth one-on-one virtual interviews with 16 cisgender men residing in different U.S. states. Interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis to identify the most salient themes and relationships among them. The experiences of Arab immigrant SMM centered around five themes: "my whole plan was to come to the U.S. to be open to who I am," "not fitting in" (homophobia, racism, sexual racism, xenophobia), "a lot of impact on my mental health," sexual health (inconsistent condom use, multiple sexual partners, preexposure prophylaxis use, testing), and coping strategies. Participants reported multiple forms of stressors related to their intersectional identities that affected their mental health, sexual health, and coping strategies. Many stressors were experienced before immigrating to the United States; however, several stressors persisted, and some new ones emerged after immigration. Results call for the development of mental health interventions informed by the unique experiences of Arab immigrant SMM and integrated within community-based organizations to foster adaptive coping strategies, social support, and community belonging. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Whose Role is It Anyway? Sexual Racism and Sexual Positioning Among Young Sexual Minority Black Men

ABSTRACT Racialized Sexual Discrimination (RSD), also referred to as “sexual racism,” is widely reported among young sexual minority Black men (YSMBM). Though RSD is driven in part by sexual scripts and racial stereotypes, little is known about YSMBM’s experiences with RSD with respect to their sexual positioning roles. Using data from a cross-sectional web-survey of YSMBM (N = 726), a multivariate Kruskal Wallis test was conducted comparing YSMBM who identified as mostly bottom, versatile, or mostly top, on the degree to which they were affected by four RSD experiences, as well as the frequency with which they encountered these experiences. Men identifying as mostly bottom reported significantly stronger negative reactions to same-race rejection and encountering sexual role assumptions than men identifying as mostly top. Men identifying as versatile encountered same-race rejection significantly more frequently than men identifying as mostly top. Men identifying as mostly bottom encountered White superiority significantly more frequently than men identifying as mostly top. RSD may impact YSMBM differentially based on sexual position. These findings may have implications for culturally competent clinical practice, as well as analytic implications (e.g., estimating more complex statistical models) for sexual racism research, which remains an important yet underexamined field in the health sciences.

Book Reviews: Racial Erotics: Gay Men of Color, Sexual Racism, and the Politics of Desire

Book Reviews: Racial Erotics: Gay Men of Color, Sexual Racism, and the Politics of Desire

Constructing a scale to measure sexual racism experienced by men of color who have sex with men.

Constructing a scale to measure sexual racism experienced by men of color who have sex with men.

Sexual, gendered, and internalized racism’s associations with disordered eating among sexual minority Asian American men: Emotional eating as mediator

ABSTRACT Research related to disordered eating among sexual minority Asian American men is scarce. Thus, the present study utilized an intersectional framework to examine how three different forms of racism (i.e. sexual racism, gendered racism, and internalized racism) are associated with disordered eating among sexual minority Asian American men, as well as the mediating role of emotional eating. A cross-sectional survey containing the study’s measures of interest were administered to participants. The final sample consisted of 180 sexual minority Asian American men. Both sexual racism and internalized racism were positively associated with disordered eating whereas gendered racism was not associated with disordered eating Emotional eating mediated the association between internalized racism and disordered eating, though it did not mediate the association between sexual racism and disordered eating. Researchers and practitioners are encouraged to utilize an intersectional framework that takes into account multiple forms of racism, especially sexual racism and internalized racism, when considering this underrepresented population’s disordered eating. Results also demonstrate the importance of addressing racism in eating disorder prevention efforts among sexual minority Asian American men.

Themed section introduction: Emerging research on racial/ethnic inequality in Canada.

Themed section introduction: Emerging research on racial/ethnic inequality in Canada.

Online Dating and Mental Health among Young Sexual Minority Black Men: Is Ethnic Identity Protective in the Face of Sexual Racism?

Racialized Sexual Discrimination (RSD), also known as 'sexual racism,' is pervasive within online dating venues. RSD is associated with poor mental health outcomes among young sexual minority Black men (YSMBM), and there is limited research on factors that may mitigate this association. Ethnic identity has been identified as a potential protective factor for racial/ethnic minorities who encounter racialized stressors, though some evidence suggests that ethnic identity may also intensify the negative effects of racial discrimination. Using data from a cross-sectional web-survey of YSMBM (n = 690), a series of linear regression models were estimated to examine the moderating effect of ethnic identity search and ethnic identity commitment on the relationship between RSD and depressive symptoms/feeling of self-worth. Results indicated that having moderate-to-high scores on commitment attenuated the association between being physically objectified by White men and higher depressive symptoms. However, having high scores on commitment intensified the association between being rejected by Black men and lower feelings of self-worth. Stronger identity commitment may be protective against objectification from White men, though it may also exacerbate negative outcomes related to in-group discrimination. These findings may have important implications for the development of individual and group-level interventions addressing ethnic identity among YSMBM.

Sexual racism and colourism among Australian men who have sex with men: A qualitative investigation

Sexual racism, referring to discrimination in the context of sexual and romantic partner-seeking, is pernicious among men who have sex with men (MSM). Two gaps exist in the literature on sexual racism among MSM: the potential role of colourism, wherein non-White MSM experience additional discrimination due to their skin tone; and the lack of current qualitative data about how Australian MSM construe sexual racism and colourism. We qualitatively investigated the manifestations and construals of sexual racism and colourism within an Australian sample of MSM (N = 39, 64% non-White) recruited via Grindr. Reflexive thematic analysis identified three themes: Manifestations of sexual racism; Recognising the racial hierarchy of desirability; and Diverse understandings of sexual racism. Participants recognised a racial hierarchy of desirability that privileges Whiteness and gives rise to multiple manifestations of sexual racism that harm non-White MSM. Notably, this hierarchy is intertwined with a skin colour hierarchy that favours lighter complexions among non-White men. Construals of sexual racism and colourism were diverse and ranged from beliefs that race-based sexual preferences are sacrosanct and beyond the purview of moral critique, through to beliefs that race-based sexual preferences are inherently political and entail a moral obligation for individuals to introspect and modify.

Is Sexual Racism Still Really Racism? Revisiting Callander et al. (2015) in the USA.

As research on race and racism in the USA has suggested that it now takes a more subtle and neoliberal form, one of the areas in which race and racism are most explicit is in dating and sex. When finding dating and sexual partners, people tend to be explicit about their rejection of potential mates along racial lines while claiming that these preferences have no connection with racism. Callander et al.'s (2015) study was the first to provide the evidence that these expressions of sexual racism, or race-based rejections of partners in sexual contexts, were in fact related to cultural racism perpetuated in society at large. Despite all of this, the study has never been replicated. We aimed to partially replicate the study in the USA, using a sample of 616 gay, bisexual, and heterosexual men. Using the Quick Discrimination Index and online sexual racism surveys referenced in the original paper, we find a correlation of - 0.129, between the two measures. This suggests that respondents who demonstrate more openness and less racist beliefs in general are also less likely to be accepting of forms of online sexual racism, a finding that is consistent with prior research. Still, the correlation between these measures is not nearly as strong as that observed in Australia in the original paper (- 0.56), raising questions that require further exploration.

Racial Erotics: Gay Men of Color, Sexual Racism, and the Politics of Desire

Racial Erotics: Gay Men of Color, Sexual Racism, and the Politics of Desire

Sexual Racism in Brazil: Aesthetic Preference, Beauty Models and Stereotypes

Sexual Racism in Brazil: Aesthetic Preference, Beauty Models and Stereotypes

How Sexual Racism and Other Discriminatory Behaviors are Rationalized in Online Dating Apps

ABSTRACT Using a multi-sited, multiple methods, and qualitative research design (including participant-observation, in-depth interviews, and analysis of online dating profiles) I examine how users engage in and justify discriminatory actions in the gay dating app “Grindr.” This paper also explores how the app allows for new ways that members can engage in these practices by blocking, filtering, and ignoring users. My findings consider the way mobile dating apps are structured to promote evaluating, and stigmatize, other users and promote a sexual hierarchy rooted in heteronormative gender roles. I also argue, based on these findings, that users normalize this behavior by constructing a culture that tolerates this behavior. Users that I interviewed justify their discriminatory behaviors (including racism, sexism, fat shaming, and discrimination against users who are HIV+) by reframing them in a sense similar to those discussed by proponents of neutralization theory. This paper contributes to the established literature on digital communication technologies by arguing that, rather than decreasing discriminatory behaviors, applications like Grindr achieve the opposite. I conclude with a consideration of how my findings expand interactionist understandings of social life, sexual capital, and online experiences.

Racialized Sexual Discrimination (RSD) and Psychological Wellbeing among Young Sexual Minority Black Men (YSMBM) Who Seek Intimate Partners Online

IntroductionOnline dating is widespread among young adults, and particularly young sexual minority men. Racialized sexual discrimination (RSD), also known as “sexual racism,” is frequently reported to occur within these digital spaces and may negatively impact the psychological wellbeing of young sexual minority Black men (YSMBM). However, the association between RSD and psychological wellbeing is not well understood.MethodsUsing data (collected between July 2017–January 2018) from a cross-sectional web-survey of YSMBM (N = 603), six multivariable regression models were estimated to examine the association between five RSD subscales and depressive symptoms and feelings of self-worth. RSD subscales were derived from the first preliminarily validated scale of sexual racism.ResultsAnalyses revealed that White superiority (β = .10, p < .01), same-race rejection (β = .16, p < .001), and White physical objectification (β = .14, p < .01) were all significantly associated with higher depressive symptoms, and White physical objectification (β = -.11, p < .01) was significantly associated with lower feelings of self-worth.ConclusionsThis study is among the first to examine the relationship between multiple, distinct manifestations of RSD and depressive symptoms and self-worth using quantitative analyses and provides evidence that RSD is negatively associated with psychological wellbeing.Policy ImplicationsSite administrators should institute robust anti-racism policies on their platforms and hold users accountable for discriminatory behavior. Activists may also consider forming coalitions and/or developing campaigns to bring about greater awareness of RSD, in an effort to influence site administrators to enact policy change.

“The Model Man:” Shifting Perceptions of Asian American Masculinity and the Renegotiation of a Racial Hierarchy of Desire

Although Asian-descent men in the United States have been subjected to negative race-gender stereotyping and sexual racism, evidence suggests that mainstream perceptions and Asian American men’s self-definitions are in flux. Drawing on in-depth interviews of U.S.-born and -raised, middle-class, heterosexual Asian American men, supplemented by popular media textual analysis, we examine how these men are drawing upon a new form of alternative Asian American masculinity— one that we call “The Model Man”—in order to renegotiate their position within the present hierarchy of romantic preference. “The Model Man,” a hybrid masculinity construction that combines the elements of White hegemonic masculinity and model minority-based “Asian” masculinity, is co-opted and deployed by men as sexual/romantic capital—especially in relation to White women—because it enables the men to present themselves as desirable romantic partners. Although this masculinity strategy contains possibilities for further straitjacketing Asian American men via the model minority stereotype—and for re-inscribing heteronormativity and patriarchy/heterosexism—it may possess an unexpectedly subversive potential in allowing the men to contest their masculinity status and even remap hegemonic American manhood.

Sexual citizenship and Asian immigrants in post-marriage equality Australia

ABSTRACT To date, few studies on sexual citizenship have explored how gender, sexuality, and ethnicity intersect to influence individuals’ migration and post-migration experiences in post-marriage equality Australia. This article argues that a more expansive concept of sexual citizenship is required when exploring the lived experiences of Asian immigrants in contemporary Australia because racialised contexts present various barriers to social inclusion. We posit sexual citizenship as an intersectional, multi-dimensional, and multi-scalar notion that encompasses transgender citizenship. We explore sociocultural stereotypes and sexual racism to highlight the intersectionality between SOGIESC and ethnicity in cross-cultural international migration. We further argue that, as SOGIESC is an integral dimension of immigrants’ lives and cannot be analytically separated from migratory processes and experiences, the concept of sexual citizenship remains central to migration studies. Furthermore, that sexual citizenship research would benefit from further critical engagement with issues of race, gender, sexuality, and immigration status of Asian Australians.

Feeling Like a Fetish: Racialized Feelings, Fetishization, and the Contours of Sexual Racism on Gay Dating Apps

ABSTRACT Whom we date and are intimate with is structured by race and racism. Recent research has focused on “personal preference” discourse and sexual stereotyping to highlight how and why race and racism affect online and offline interactions. Yet relatively less work focuses on racial fetishization – race-based fixation on a bodily part or characteristic that involves both idolization and demonization of racial difference. Drawing on recent theorizing around racialized feelings, we investigated how racial fetishization materializes and makes men of color feel. We used two sources of data: 858 unique profile screenshots and 26 in-depth interviews with users of Grindr, Scruff, and Jack’d – three popular dating apps for sexual minority men. We found that while instances of racial fetishization were rare in public profiles, a majority of men of color discussed its prevalence. As a result of racial fetishization, men of color described feeling: (1) objectified; (2) that it hindered the formation of platonic or intimate connections; and (3) boxed in and minimized to a stereotype. Our results suggest that racial fetishization induces particular racialized feelings in men of color, and we suggest ways that these racialized feelings might be connected to the reproduction of racial and sexual inequality.

The Creepy White Guy and the Helpless Asian: How Sexual Racism Persists in a Gay Interracial Friendship Group

Abstract How is sexual racism maintained in an organization that claims to resist it? This article applies the concept of sexual racism to an organizational case study of a friendship group of gay Asian and white men that aims to uplift Asian men’s erotic capital, but which actually upholds white desirability. Through ethnographic observations and interviews, the author first compares Asian and white men’s unequal positions on the gay sexual hierarchy before joining the group. The author unpacks four dimensions of organizational experience in which sexual racism is reproduced and white desirability is maintained: (1) a group monitoring practice that reproduces interracial stereotypes; (2) the normalized Asian-white pairing norm and the necessity of whiteness in romantic formation; (3) Asians vs. whites’ personal experiences of change in sexual capital that stabilize white desirability while Asians’ desirability increase with a cost; and (4) the reproduction of anti-Blackness in group-level constraints against non-white, non-Asian members. These findings contribute to sociological understandings of the racialization of sexuality and the sexualization of race by showing how an alternative space of desire for minority groups can still manifest sexual racism on individual and organizational levels.

Measurement of Intersectional Microaggressions: Conceptual Barriers and Recommendations

Since Crenshaw coined the term “intersectionality” in 1989, researchers of bias have struggled with how to capture the complexity and intricacies of intersectional identities and microaggressions experienced by individuals holding these identities within the quantitative framework that dominates psychology. Although scholarship has grown in the exploration of experiences such as racialized sexual harassment, or sexual racism within queer and trans communities, there is no strong consensus on how this might be measured systematically in ways that allow for inferences regarding the experiences of populations of interest. With an emphasis on the experiences of queer and trans people of color, this article explores intersectional identities through three main points: First, we define what is meant by intersectionality and the real-world experiences that are important for advancing an understanding of microaggressions; second, we review the existing measures and their ability to capture the breadth and depth of the lived experience of those with intersectional identities; and third, we propose a framework for the development of a more accurate and comprehensive measure of microaggressions.