Sexual Minority Identity Development Research Articles

The Developmental Collision Hypothesis: An Empirical Test With Three Generations of Sexual Minority Youth.

Sexual minority youth experience disproportionate rates of mental health symptomatology relative to their heterosexual peers. Less is known about why these disparities have persisted despite growing public awareness of sexual diversity. The developmental collision hypothesis states that increased cultural visibility of sexual diversity has accelerated the developmental timing of sexual minority identity formation processes such that they collide with early adolescence, a uniquely sensitive period for experiencing identity-based stigma and associated mental health vulnerability. To test this hypothesis, levels and relations between ages of sexual minority identity development milestones, frequency of LGBT-related victimization, and depressive symptoms were examined across three age-matched but cohort-distinct samples of sexual minority adolescents. Data come from three secondary datasets of sexual minority youth who were adolescents in the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s, respectively: the Challenges and Coping Study, the Victimization and Mental Health among High Risk Youths Study, and the Risk and Protective Factors for Suicide among Sexual Minority Youth Study (n = 1312; Mage = 17.34, SD = 1.30; 52% female). Adolescents from more recent cohorts reported earlier mean ages of several milestones but similar frequencies of LGBT-related victimization relative to those from less recent cohorts. Path analysis models showed that earlier milestones were associated indirectly with more depressive symptoms through LGBT-related victimization. Notably, earlier ages of self-identification and disclosure of a sexual minority identity were also directly related to less depressive symptoms. Few generational differences in relations between constructs emerged. Findings garner initial support for the developmental collision hypothesis and suggest that LGBT-related victimization, rather than earlier milestones themselves, increases mental health vulnerability.

Sexual Minority Identity Development: Latent Profiles of Developmental Milestones in a National Probability Sample.

Sexual identity development milestones mark the ages at which sexual minority people first experience key developmental events including same-sex attraction, self-realization of a sexual minority identity, same-sex sexual behavior and romantic relationships, and sexual identity disclosure. Most studies of milestones use variable-centered, rather than person-centered approaches, potentially obscuring diversity in patterns across milestones. Using data from The Generations Study, the first national probability sample of White, Black, and Latinx sexual minority adults in the United States (n = 1,492), we examined variability in milestone timing and patterning using a latent profile analysis approach. We identified four distinct profiles, characterized by variability in milestone mean ages, pacing, and sequences: an early adolescence profile (22.9%), a middle adolescence profile (33.6%), a late adolescence profile (27.6%), and an adulthood profile (15.9%). Profiles were demographically distinct, varying by birth cohort, sexual identity, race/ethnicity, gender identity, and childhood gender nonconformity. Results suggest developmental and demographic diversity in the emergence of sexual identity development across the life course, with implications for sexual minority health and thriving.

Revisiting the bottleneck hypothesis: The role of sexual identity development in the career exploration and decision-making of sexual minority college students

Hetherington's (1991) “bottleneck hypothesis”, which maintains that the process of sexual identity development can hamper the career development of sexual minority college students, has received periodic study. We revisited this hypothesis using the social cognitive model of career self-management (CSM; Lent & Brown, 2013) as a theoretical framework. An online survey of 225 sexual minority and 287 heterosexual college students did not reveal a robust between-group bottleneck effect. For example, no significant mean level differences were observed between the two groups in career decision-making process and outcome variables, such as career decision-making anxiety and level of career decidedness. In addition, a CSM-based path model of career decision-making was found to be invariant across the two student groups. However, a few noteworthy within-group patterns were observed. For example, a cluster analysis suggested the presence of two sexual minority sub-groups who differed regarding level of outness and difficulties negotiating their sexual identity. The more identity-integrated cluster reported less decisional anxiety and greater decidedness than their less identity-integrated peers. Indicators of identity conflict and level of disclosure were also linked to perceived support and goals for future career exploration. The pattern of findings suggests that sexual minority identity development in college does not represent a monolithic bottleneck to career development. However, a more nuanced bottleneck effect in career decision-making may be linked to students' intrapersonal and social comfort in negotiating their sexual minority identity. Implications for the bottleneck hypothesis and further research on sexual minority students' career exploration and decision-making are discussed.

Effects of Friendship among Same-Sex Attracted Youth on Sexual Minority Identity Development in Young Adulthood

ABSTRACT Using data from Waves 1 and 3 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, this study investigated the interactive impact of adolescent friendship network characteristics and same-sex attraction (SSA) on the development of sexual minority (SM) identity in young adulthood. Results indicate that SSA youth who identified a best friend that also identified them as their best friend were 5.3 times more likely to identify as a SM compared to those who did not experience reciprocity. For each additional classmate who listed them as a friend, SSA youth were 1.2 times more likely to identify as a SM. Increased centrality in friendship network increased the likelihood that SSA youth would identify as a SM by 1.8 times. Sex-stratified results reveal that particular network characteristics impact boys and girls differently. These findings point to the importance of further investigating relationships between friendship characteristics and identity formation among adolescents.

The Proverbial Closet: Do Faith and Religiosity Affect Coming Out Patterns?

Disclosing one’s sexual minority identity or “coming out of the closet” is a key milestone in sexual minority identity development. While scholars have explored how race, gender, class, and other social classifications shape coming out patterns among lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) individuals, we know far less about the effect of religious contexts. To address this shortcoming, we extend existing theoretical insights to better understand how faith and religiosity shape coming out patterns among sexual minorities both independently and collectively. Specifically, we examine how religious affiliation and religious attendance (a measure of religiosity) affect when LGB individuals privately realize and publicly disclose their sexual minority identity. Using data from the Pew Research Center’s 2013 Survey of LGBT Adults, we conduct a series of ordinary least squares regressions on a representative sample of LGB adults ( n = 1,136). We find religious contexts—both religious affiliation and attendance—have no independent effect on when a person realizes or publicly discloses their sexual minority identity for the first time. However, evangelical Protestants that frequently attend religious services publicly disclose their sexual minority identity at older ages. These results highlight the social cost of publicly disclosing an LGB identity, especially within conservative religious spaces.

Identity negotiation processes among Black and Latinx sexual minority young adult mental health service users

The transition to adulthood presents particular challenges for Black and Latinx sexual minorities in need of mental health services. Identity formation and marginalization during this developmental period can interfere with help-seeking and lead to health disparities. Identity-specific psychosocial supports are needed to assist young adults to successfully navigate these challenges, but research on identity processes, help-seeking, and service-utilization among sexual minority young people of color is very limited. To better understand how multiple minority young people navigate their identities in the context of using, or choosing not to use, mental health services, this study qualitatively explored the experiences of 31 emerging adults. Through in-depth interviews, analyses revealed that young adults negotiated social identity norms about mental health help-seeking by separating from unhelpful norms, managing stigmatized aspects of identity, integrating helpful identity alternatives, and forming individualized perspectives on help-seeking that allowed them to maintain important connections to their minority group identities. Findings are discussed in relation to previous research on ethnic and sexual minority identity development and service utilization. Practice and research recommendations for increasing knowledge, improving help-seeking, and promoting resilience around young adults’ intersectional identities are offered.

Navigating disclosure of sexual minority identity for men in socio-politically conservative areas

Previous models of sexual minority orientation identity development have theorized disclosure of current orientation as important in accepting one’s sexual minority identity. Furthermore, research into disclosure of sexual orientation highlights positive outcomes for disclosure and negative outcomes for concealment of sexual minority identity. These models, however, fail to incorporate the socio-cultural context of the individual. Using a grounded theory approach, we conducted 40 interviews with individuals who identified with a sexual minority identity living in rural areas in Oklahoma, a primarily socio-politically conservative state in the U.S. Data collection continued until thematic saturation was reached. Three main themes were identified by participants in regards to navigating disclosure of sexual orientation: (1) assessment of consequences to disclosure; (2) situational disclosure of sexual orientation; and (3) disclosure of current sexual orientation. Rural sexual minority men navigate disclosing their sexual orientation by considering the socio-cultural environment where they live and the acceptance and/or rejection of important individuals in their lives. This consideration demonstrates the importance of considering disclosure as a step in sexual minority identity development, not actual disclosure of sexual minority identity. A preliminary model of navigating disclosure is proposed and implications are discussed.

Using social support levels to predict sexual identity development among college students who identify as a sexual minority

ABSTRACTThis study examined the impact of five domains of social support (a campus group for individuals who identify as a sexual minority, family, friends, significant others, and faith communities) on eight aspects of sexual minority identity development (identity uncertainty, internalized homonegativity, identity affirmation, acceptance concerns, identity superiority, concealment motivation, identity centrality, and difficulty in the identity development process). Support from a sexuality-specific campus group was the strongest predictor, followed by support from family members. Supports from friends and significant others had no significant impact on any aspect of sexual minority identity development, while faith community support was not correlated with identity development. Identifying as lesbian, bisexual, or as another sexual minority compared to identifying as gay also impacted sexual minority identity development.

Considering the Cycle of Coming Out: Sexual Minority Identity Development

Considering the Cycle of Coming Out: Sexual Minority Identity Development

A Qualitative Study of Middle Eastern/Arab American Sexual Minority Identity Development

The development of one's sexual minority identity is often stunted by a heterosexist society. For individuals with multiple minority oppressions, this process becomes even more complicated. As such, there has been a call among researchers for more empirical research on the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB) individuals from racial/ethnic minority groups. This study uses qualitative methods to fill gaps in the literature related to identity development among same-gender attracted Middle Eastern/Arab individuals living in the United States. From 12 interviews, 13 themes associated with intersectionality, race/ethnicity, sexual identity development, discrimination, stigma, oppression, and invisibility. Themes, subthemes, and their implications are discussed.

Adolescence and beyond: family processes and development

Introduction to the Volume. Patricia K. Kerig and Marc S. Schulz Section I. SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND REGULATORY PROCESSES Introduction to Section I Chapter 1. Regulating Emotion in Adolescence: A Cognitive-Mediational Conceptualization, Marc S. Schulz and Richard S. Lazarus Chapter 2. Risk and Protective Factors for Suicidality during the Transition to Adulthood: Parenting, Self-Regulatory Processes, and Successful Resolution of Stage-Salient Tasks, Daria Boeninger and Rand D. Conger Chapter 3. The Status of Identity: Developments in Identity Status Research, Jane Kroger Section II. FRIENDSHIP AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS Introduction to Section II Chapter 4. The Quality of Friendships during Adolescence: Patterns across Context, Culture, and Age, Niobe Way and Lisa R. Silverman Chapter 5. The Intergenerational Transmission of Adolescent Romantic Relationships, Shmuel Shulman, Miri Scharf, and Lital Shachar-Shapira Chapter 6. Autonomy with Connection: Influences of Parental Psychological Control on Mutuality in Emerging Adults' Close Relationships, Patricia K. Kerig, Julie A. Swanson, and Rose Marie Ward Section III. SHIFTS IN FAMILY ROLES AND RELATIONSHIPS Introduction to Section III Chapter 7. Sociocultural Perspectives on Adolescent Autonomy, Kathleen Boykin McElhaney and Joseph P. Allen Chapter 8. Mama, I'm a Person, Too!: Individuation and Young African-American Mothers' Parenting Competence, Laura D. Pittman, Lauren S. Wakschlag, P. Lindsay Chase-Lansdale, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn Chapter 9. Young Fathers and the Transition to Parenthood: An Interpersonal Analysis of Paternal Outcomes, Paul Florsheim and David R. Moore Section IV. LIFE EVENTS AND CHALLENGING CONTEXTS Introduction to Section IV Chapter 10. Exceptional Outcomes: Using Narratives and Family Observations to Understand Resilience, Stuart T. Hauser, Joseph P. Allen, and Marc S. Schulz Chapter 11. Sexual-minority Identity Development in the Family Context, Lisa M. Diamond, Molly R. Butterworth, and Kendrick Allen Chapter 12. Resilience and Vulnerability of Mexican Origin Youth and their Families: A Test of a Culturally-Informed Model of Family Economic Stress, Rand D. Conger, Hairong Song, Gary D. Stockdale, Emilio Ferrer, Keith F. Widaman, and Ana M. Cauce Chapter 13. Psychiatric hospitalization: The utility of using archival records to understand the lives of adolescent patients, Karin M. Best and Stuart T. Hauser Conclusion. Looking Beyond Adolescence: Translating Basic Research into Clinical Practice, Patricia K. Kerig and Marc S. Schulz

Stage of Sexual Minority Identity Formation: The Impact of Shame, Internalized Homophobia, Ambivalence Over Emotional Expression, and Personal Mastery

Literature on sexual minorities has focused on characteristics regarding the developmental process of sexual identity formation, with little agreement as to underlying constructs. The present study (N = 855) used an online survey to investigate Cass's (1984) theoretical model of stages of identity formation to explore shame and associated variables of internalized homophobia, ambivalence over emotional expression, and personal mastery across stages of identity development in order to clarify relationships among these variables. Findings offer partial support of Cass's stage model of sexual minority identity development as a process of differential stage progression and suggest that the relationships between shame, internalized homophobia, ambivalence over emotional expression and personal mastery are significant in understanding identity stage development. Applications to psychotherapy are discussed.

Internet Use and Sexual Health of Young Men Who Have Sex with Men: A Mixed-Methods Study

Young gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) experience sexual health disparities due to a lack of support in settings that traditionally promote positive youth development. The Internet may help to fill this void, but little is known about how it is used for sexual health purposes among young MSM. This mixed-methods study reports quantitative results of a large survey of 18- to 24-year-old MSM in an HIV testing clinic (N=329) as well as qualitative results from interviews. Level of Internet use was high in this sample and the majority of participants reported using the Internet to find HIV/AIDS information. Black and Latino youth used the Internet less frequently than White youth, and after controlling for age, education, and frequency of Internet use, Black youth were 70% less likely to use the Internet to find HIV/AIDS information. Qualitative analyses identified themes related to the role of the Internet in finding sexual health information, sexual minority identity development, and sexual risk taking behaviors. Participants reported that the Internet filled an important and unmet need for sexual health education. It allowed for connections to the gay community and support during the coming out process, but also exposure to homophobic messages. There was no evidence of increased risk behaviors with partners met online, but at the same time the potential for the use of the Internet to facilitate safer sex communication was largely untapped. Our findings generally present an optimistic picture about the role of the Internet in the development of sexual health among young MSM.