Minor Sex Trafficking Research Articles

Digital Traps: The Critical Role of Online Encounters in the Entrapment of Minors in Sex Trafficking.

We are grateful to the Editors of TVA for the opportunity to respond to the commentary on our systematic review of the sex trafficking of minors, specifically regarding the initial recruitment location. Upon revisiting the 7 out of 23 reviewed studies that address recruitment locations, we find that the discrepancy with the commentators' views stems from differing interpretations of the term "initial." We affirm that these seven studies, which include the internet as a prominent initial recruitment site, are valid and appropriate for inclusion. We also emphasize that, irrespective of recruitment location, we and the commentators share deep concerns about the severe impact of sex trafficking on minors, recognizing it as a heinous crime against vulnerable populations. Traffickers use both online and in-person methods to manipulate and exploit youth. Our review highlights the internet as a primary platform for traffickers to form relationships with minors, comparable in danger to in-person interactions. The 23 reviewed papers focus on documenting these predatory relationships and the critical role of supportive, healing relationships in prevention and intervention.

Raising Awareness about Sex Trafficking among School Personnel.

We aimed to (1) understand the level of knowledge about sex trafficking of minors among school personnel and the determinants of such knowledge and (2) test the efficacy of short educational videos in increasing knowledge (awareness level) about sex trafficking of minors among school personnel. We employed an online survey to gather responses from 741 school personnel living in the US. The McNemar test was used to test for differences in knowledge before and after exposure to the videos. Logistic regression was used to identify predictors of knowledge based on the respondents' characteristics. Predictors of knowledge about sex trafficking were years of experience in working with youth, level of education, and being a female. Exposure to the educational videos improved school personnel's basic knowledge about this crime and interest in seeking additional educational material. School personnel have a high level of awareness of risk factors for sex trafficking but less awareness of the definition of sex trafficking in children. Exposure to short educational videos can increase awareness in the short term. There is a need to develop more comprehensive training initiatives for school personnel on sex trafficking. However, training alone is not sufficient, and there is also a need for developing school protocols and programs to provide adequate support to victims of this crime.

Understanding the Retrospective and Current Health Care Needs and Service Experiences of Adult Survivors of Minor Sex Trafficking

Minor sex trafficking is an urgent public health problem, but we lack data about how such experiences impact health and health care access. Utilizing data collected from in-depth interviews with 35 adult survivors of minor sex trafficking across the U.S. we explored the physical and psychological healthcare access and healthcare experiences of adult survivors of minor sex trafficking. Negative healthcare experiences before, during, and following sex trafficking foster a lack of trust and confidence in healthcare systems as adults. Recommendations are provided to help overcome barriers to meeting healthcare needs and improving health care experiences for survivors of minor sex trafficking.

The Royal Treatment

The Royal Treatment

Qualitative Multiple Case Study Analysis about Elopement from Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking (DMST)

Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking (DMST) is the fastest growing crime globally. Vulnerable adolescents are primary targets of sex traffickers. DMST delays adolescent development following their treatment during and environmental conditions while in The Life. This qualitative study reveals elopement decisions are fraught with barriers to elope and seeking safety. The research uncovered a non-linear process that affects their development, as yet described in the conceptual models: The War MAZE© and Conquering the War MAZE©. These new insights help healthcare providers identify readiness to elope and elopement victory by recognizing the adolescent’s barriers to elopement. The results explain DMST elopement from a developmental perspective by analyzing qualitative data from survivor voices, which supports gender equity and empowerment of women. The findings inform healthcare providers in planning inclusive trauma-informed care approaches and unbiased research designed to safeguard DMST survivors during their recovery processes.

Practitioners’ Perspectives of Family Involved Sex Trafficking of Minors: Implications for Practice

Practitioners’ Perspectives of Family Involved Sex Trafficking of Minors: Implications for Practice

Sleep Disturbances and Hygiene of Adolescent Female Survivors of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking

This cross-sectional quantitative study investigated the sleep hygiene and disturbances of adolescent female survivors of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) compared to an online sample of community-dwelling adolescent females. Community-dwelling adolescent females (aged 13-17 years, n=61) and survivors of DMST housed in residental care (aged 12-17 years, n=19) completed the Children's Report of Sleep Patterns (adolescent version). Descriptive statistics on sleep health in both samples were computed and compared using chi-square and t-tests. Among the survivors of DMST, the majority reported insufficient sleep duration, okay-to-poor sleep quality, waking thirsty, and frequent nightmares. Compared with community-dwelling adolescents, survivors of DMST had more symptoms of insomnia, sleepiness, nightmares, and waking thirsty (p < .05). Sleep disturbances among adolescent female survivors of DMST may be more prevalent than in community-dwelling adolescent females. Further empirical research on appropriate assessment and trauma-informed treatment of sleep in this population is needed.

Clinical Psychosocial Risk Factors for Sex Trafficking Involvement Among Adolescent Girls

PurposeThis study assessed the characteristics that place adolescent girls at greatest risk for sex trafficking involvement. It was hypothesized that girls with a greater history of risk behaviors, unstable home environments, child maltreatment, and increased psychiatric complexity would be more likely to be involved in domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST). MethodsRetrospective chart review of two cohorts of adolescent girls, one with known DMST history, and an age-matched cohort without DMST history, was conducted. Patients came from a Child Abuse clinic and primary care clinic within a single large urban children's hospital in the Northeast United States. Multivariate clustering analysis identified two groups of patients within the sample, one sharing “low risk” traits, and one with “high risk” traits. A variable for “psychiatric complexity” and its relationship to DMST risk was assessed. Hypothesis tests of mediation were conducted. Results44 DMST patients and 181 Primary Care patients were included in the final sample, who were then grouped into two clusters based on conceptualized “risk” characteristics. Hypothesis testing supported evidence that patients in the “high risk” group tended toward higher psychiatric complexity (p = .0016) and greater likelihood of DMST involvement (p = .0328). Patients with increased psychiatric complexity also tended towards DMST involvement, regardless of “risk” cluster (p < .0001). DiscussionThis study demonstrates the relationship between social characteristics, psychiatric problems, and DMST involvement. We demonstrated that adolescents with increased psychiatric complexity tend towards greater risk of DMST. These findings demonstrate the important relationship between psychiatric complexity and sexual victimization.

The Impact of Social Media, the Internet, and Legislation on Online Minor Sex Trafficking

The Impact of Social Media, the Internet, and Legislation on Online Minor Sex Trafficking

Understanding and Intervening with Survivors of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: An Application of Social Cognition Theory

Understanding and Intervening with Survivors of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: An Application of Social Cognition Theory

Successful Criminal Prosecutions of Sex Trafficking and Sexual Abuse of Minors: A Comparative Analysis.

Despite increased awareness of sex trafficking of minors in the U.S., prosecution of traffickers remains difficult, in part because of victim uncooperativeness. There are questions about how that uncooperativeness is expressed, whether it is evident in successfully prosecuted cases, and whether it is unique to trafficked minors or it emerges in similar age victims of sexual abuse. To provide insight relevant to these questions, we compared appellate opinions in two types of successfully prosecuted criminal cases: sex trafficking and sexual abuse of adolescent victims. In the trafficking opinions, victims were rarely described as disclosing on their own or as knowing their trafficker before the victimization. The opinions also often alluded to the trafficking victims' uncooperativeness and delinquency history, and frequently mentioned electronic evidence and prosecution experts. The sexual abuse opinions, in contrast, tended to suggest that victims' own disclosures initiated the case, perpetrators were known and trusted adults, and caregiver support during the case was common. Finally, the sexual abuse opinions never explicitly mentioned victim uncooperativeness or electronic evidence and rarely mentioned expert testimony or delinquency. The different characterizations of the two case types highlight the need for improved education concerning effective prosecution of sex crimes against minors.

Team Approaches to Addressing Sex Trafficking of Minors: Promising Practices for a Collaborative Model

The extant research literature is lacking in its focus on community-based responses (CBRs) to sex trafficking involving minors in the juvenile justice system. To address this research gap, the present study draws from 35 interviews with social service and justice system practitioners who work with juvenile justice-involved minors experiencing sex trafficking to examine collaborative responses in two Study Sites. Specifically, protocols to respond to trafficking and collaboration with community partners are explored. Results indicate that a formal protocol engaging a team approach inclusive of multiple community partners is a promising mezzo level response to addressing the sex trafficking of minors involved in the juvenile justice system. Informal and formal relationships, establishing a shared goal, open and ongoing communication, and trust building were also found to enhance community-based responses. Implications include establishing a protocol to respond to sex trafficking in the juvenile court system when sex trafficking is suspected and/or confirmed, which would engage a CBR team involving the survivor, parent(s)/guardian(s), DJO, supervisor, investigator, judge, Children’s Division caseworker, and social services provider(s). Establishing a shared goal within the CBR team and developing a pattern of communication and follow up can facilitate trust building, ultimately benefitting CBRs addressing the sex trafficking of minors involved with the juvenile justice system.

The ethics and urgency of identifying domestic minor sex trafficking victims in clinical settings

A critical opportunity for identifying children experiencing domestic minor sex trafficking exists in healthcare settings. This quantitative study documented the disconnect between youth seeking help and interventions offered by healthcare providers. Ninety-one sex youth exploited through sex trafficking answered questions detailing their experiences of seeking medical treatment for injuries associated with selling or trading sex. Healthcare providers who were aware that injuries were sustained due to sex trafficking did not always alert legal or mandated reporting authorities. This analysis identified violations of the four pillars of ethical healthcare. This investigation revealed lost opportunities to intervene on behalf of youth suffering trauma and abuse from sex trafficking highlighting the necessity for a formal protocol in healthcare settings to effectively intervene.

Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: Applying a Trauma-Informed Approach in Healthcare Settings.

The original Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386) defined human trafficking as (A) sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age; or (B) the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. (§ 103[8][A–B]) This legislation established that any minor used in a commercial sex act is a victim of trafficking, regardless of whether their actions were allegedly voluntary (Finklea et al., 2015; Institute of Medicine [IOM] & National Research Council [NRC], 2014). Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the commercial sexual exploitation of U.S. children and youth. DMST victims experience a range of harmful sequelae, as seen in Table 1 (Ark of Hope, 2019; Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2017; Sapiro et al., 2016; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2014; Shared Hope International, 2020; U.S. Department of Justice, 2020).

Physical Disabilities and Low Cognitive Ability Increase Odds of Minor Sex Exchange among Adolescent Males in the United States

ABSTRACT Disability is a well-established risk factor for sexual violence victimization among both male and female children. Some research indicates that adolescent females with disabilities are at higher risk of experiencing minor sex exchange (a form of minor sex trafficking victimization) compared to females without disabilities, but there is a dearth of similar research among adolescent males. This study investigates whether physical disability and low cognitive ability are related to sex exchange among minor adolescent males. This cross-sectional analysis using data from a nationally representative cohort study, The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), included 4,401 male participants who were age 18 or younger at Wave II. Unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models estimated the odds of adolescent experiences of sex exchange by physical disability and cognitive ability. Both severe physical disability and low cognitive ability in adolescent males were significantly associated with increased odds of exchanging sex, results similar to those found in studies of adolescent females. Because of these associations for both males and females, disability should be taken into account when designing and implementing prevention and intervention programs related to sex trafficking. These results underscore the importance of addressing system-wide gaps contributing to the relationship between disability and the involvement of minors in commercial sex exchange.

Laypersons’ recognition of and attribution of blame in situations involving domestic minor sex trafficking

ABSTRACT Successful identification of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) remains challenging. Laypersons could play a significant role in identifying victims, but only if laypersons recognize trafficking situations as such and do not incorrectly attribute responsibility to victims. In the current study, we examined laypersons’ perceptions of situations highly suggestive of DMST. Participants (N = 320), recruited from an internet-based crowd-sourcing platform, read a vignette describing a highly suspicious situation involving a minor and adult in a hotel room with cash on the minor’s person. Participants answered questions about what they thought was happening and about their general knowledge of trafficking. The vignette systematically varied the age (13, 15, 17 years) and gender (boy, girl) of the victim to include the most common ages and genders of known DMST victims. Overall, just over half (61%) of participants recognized that a crime occurred, more often with younger (70%) than older (55%) minors. Participants tended to place some responsibility on older minors for their situation, as did participants who exhibited lower levels of general knowledge of trafficking. Overall, the results reveal substantial limitations in laypersons’ understanding of DMST, including who is responsible, highlighting the need for targeted educational campaigns to improve that understanding.

Addressing Racism in the Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking of Black Girls: The Role of Public Health Critical Race Praxis.

Addressing Racism in the Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking of Black Girls: The Role of Public Health Critical Race Praxis.

Do You See Us?

This paper examines the literature on domestic minor sex trafficking. We draw on a critical race feminist lens, with particular attention to intersectionality and assemblage, to review research on conditions that exacerbate and decrease girls’ vulnerability to sex trafficking to emphasize why schools must systematically engage in sex trafficking prevention. We argue that school communities are positioned to address the intersectional and exacerbating conditions that make students, particularly Black girls, more vulnerable to this form of modern-day slavery. Rather than reinforce narratives that often criminalize and devalue survivors, the purpose of this article is to create a dialogue about how schools can be intentional in fighting sex trafficking in their communities. We provide specific recommendations for schools to place girls’ voices at the center of this prevention work and build knowledge within the school faculty to sustain this work, work that is both feminist and anti-racist, to equip students to become competent, confident, and empowered leaders.

Effectiveness of TF‐CBT with sex trafficking victims in a secure post‐adjudication facility

AbstractThis study evaluated the course and degree of treatment effect for trauma‐focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF‐CBT) for decreasing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among adjudicated girls who are victims of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST). We also aimed to understand the perceptions of the treatment while recovering from trauma symptoms and the lived experience of DMST victims engaging in TF‐CBT while living in the post‐adjudication facility. Participants were three adolescents who self‐identified as Hispanic. Results of a mixed‐method research design with multiple baselines indicated TF‐CBT was efficacious with two out of three of the girls in reducing PTSD symptoms. Qualitative data yielded five themes depicting the concurrent phases of treatment experience: protest, suppression, brokenness, stability, and breakthrough. All three girls gave voice to their experience participating in treatment and their experience engaging in treatment while living in a secure post‐adjudication juvenile facility. Implications for use of TF‐CBT with victims of DMST are provided.

The Associations Between Gang Membership and Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: Findings From a Nationally Representative Study.

Adolescent gang membership has been proposed as a risk factor that creates individual-level vulnerability for domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) and/or a context in which DMST may occur. This study investigates the gang membership-DMST association using data from The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a nationally representative sample of adolescents in the United States (n = 12,605). Bivariate results found gang-involved minors had 4.39 greater odds of experiencing DMST compared to non-gang-involved peers. Multivariable results found gang membership, violence victimization, delinquency, and certain demographic characteristics to be significantly associated with DMST. These findings emphasize the need to consider the context in an adolescent's life beyond DMST when designing policies and programs, and highlight the need for additional research into the gang membership-DMST association.