Gender Segregation Research Articles

The Development of an Informative Model for Namibian Women in ICT Careers

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) were identified by the United Nations as tools that enable and enhance economic development and sustainable development. Women are a social group that plays an important role in development from the family level through to community and national institutions. Despite their contribution in social and economic development, women happen to lack digital exposure and career guidance in challenging information technology careers. The challenge motivated the need to explore the occupational experience of Namibian women in information technology and factors influencing their information technology career growth. The study used qualitative research approach and a case study design focusing on Windhoek the capital city of Namibia. The sample size was 35 female workers from IT professions in Windhoek and 20 female students. The data were collected by means of questionnaires. The results showed that IT female’s workers and IT students are less represented in IT challenging jobs and IT challenging courses that include Artificial Intelligence (AI), Cybersecurity, Networking and Programming. Furthermore, the results showed that women in IT take fewer challenging positions such as computer technicians and system administrators due to the lack of skills and appropriate tools. Finally, IT female workers are being undermined due to the traditional belief that women are less efficient, hence, they do not rise to higher positions. Following the results, it was concluded that social and cultural factors affect women in the ICT profession and it is possible to develop the informative model for Namibia women in ICT through identification of challenges and developing strategies for overcoming the challenges. Following identified gaps, it is recommended stakeholders including the government and other institutions must maintain the involvements of the Namibian girl child in specialized ICT courses at grass root level from primary schools, through secondary schools up to tertiary institutions and avoid any form of gender segregation when enrolling ICT students.

İSTANBUL İŞ PIYASASINDA TOPLUMSAL CINSIYET EŞITLIĞI PERFORMANSININ DEĞERLENDIRILMESI

OBJECTIVES: The study aims to analyze the Istanbul labor market from a gender equality perspective and to provide relevant recommendations. METHODS: To achieve results, this research has applied a systematic approach. Prisma Guidelines are followed to report the research findings. This paper selected 13 studies that are relevant to the research questions. Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) was also employed in this research. RESULTS: The research systematized the factors that determine gender inequality in the Istanbul labor market, including religious aspects and cultural pattern, access to education for women, differentiation in educational levels, lack of work-life balance, and lack of necessary professional skills in women. It was shown that historically, the gender income gap was mostly explained by differences in education and occupational choice. The conducted research forms the range of issues of individual motivational professional preferences of women’s employment while maintaining a stable trend of maximally reducing gender segregation to a conditional threshold level of gender professional preferences. CONCLUSIONS: This paper would serve policymakers in Turkey in identifying the potential gender gaps and their underlying causes in the labor market and help in formulating laws and policies that can enhance gender equality in the Istanbul labor market. NOVELTY/ORIGINALITY: The paper provided a novel approach to a comprehensive understanding of gender equality in the Istanbul labor market. This study is the first research that has employed a systematic research approach along with the integration of PRISMA guidelines and CASP for investigating gender equality in the Istanbul labor market. Keywords: career development, gender equality, labor market, wage gap.

INTEREST IN, AND CHARACTERIZATION OF, MANAGERIAL AND TECHNICAL CAREER PATHS AMONG SECOND-YEAR WOMEN ENGINEERING STUDENTS

Patterns of intraoccupational gender segregation have been found in engineering industry, and these patterns may pose challenges for women, currently and historically. We explore the career path interests and characterizations of women engineering students toward technical and managerial paths in industry that may be precursors to their eventual choice of career path once they enter the profession. We conducted semi-interviews with 30 second-year women engineering students in three majors. We applied an iterative thematic analysis approach to explore and compare career path interests and attitudes within and across majors. Analyses generated four key findings: (1) the majority of students expressed an interest in the managerial career path; (2) students associated the managerial career path with preferences for collaboration and holistic work, applying dual skills, and opportunities to have relational and organizational impact; (3) students associated the technical career path with preferences for challenge, applying specialized technical skills, and societal impact through technological innovation; and (4) students in majors with higher percentages of women were more likely to express interest in the managerial career path. Our work suggests that women have clear interests and preconceptions about engineering career paths early in their undergraduate education. These findings may hold implications for women students' eventual career decisions and the patterns of intraoccupational gender segregation in engineering industry.

Dominant Discourses at Play: How Children’s Soccer Coaches of Mixed-Sex Programs in Ontario, Canada, Understand Sex and Gender

In this study, we explore how soccer coaches of children’s mixed-sex programs in Ontario understand sex and gender in the context of their coaching practices. Informed by feminist science studies and feminist methodologies, we conducted semistructured interviews with 11 coaches. Through critical discourse analysis, we identified the coaches’ (re)production of three discourses: (a) gender is constructed but categorical; (b) inevitable and hierarchal sex differences necessitate sex segregation; and (c) girls’ sport is vulnerable, and girls in sport require support. The results of this study indicate that these coaches’ understandings of sex and gender are heavily informed by discourses of sex essentialism and sex and gender difference, which together legitimize the need for a binary sex/gender model of sport. Understanding the ways in which sport enforces and is shaped by the limited binary and naturalized notions of sex and gender is one step in reimagining a more just and inclusive model of sport, including children’s sport, and in creating sport spaces where players of all genders can thrive.

The Role of Al-Falah Boarding School in Gender Segregation: An Analysis of the Separation of Men and Women in Islamic Education

Abstrak: This research examines the role of Islamic boarding schools in gender segregation, specifically focusing on the separation of men and women in Islamic education. A case study was conducted at Al-Falah Boarding School in Banjarbaru, Indonesia, using a descriptive-qualitative approach. The main findings indicate that gender segregation at Al-Falah Boarding School has positive impacts on learning, such as creating a focused learning environment and facilitating memorization of study materials without distractions from the opposite gender. Gender-based learning has been implemented in the study of Islamic jurisprudence (fikih). The role of the boarding school in the development of this separation is deemed effective, as evidenced by the achievements in personal and environmental development.

Professional Gender Segregation in Scientific Discourse: Trends and Contradiction

Introduction. The article examines current ideas about professional gender segregation in Russian and foreign scientific discourses. Comparative analysis of various approaches to understanding gender issues allows us to identify new potentials for their study, as well as to pay attention to the development of the optics of Russian science in considering gender differences. Gender issues in the field of information technology require the closest attention and study, since this area is at the forefront of scientific, technological and social development.Methodology and sources. The theoretical and methodological basis for interpreting the results of the study was the main provisions of sociological and economic theories: the theory of social representations (S. Moscovici), the concept of habitus (P. Bourdieu), role theory (R. Linton), and rational choice theory. To work with empirical data, we used the methods of comparative text analysis, analysis of documents and research reports (The Gender Inequality Index, The Global Gender Gap Index, Global Gender Gap Report, “Women and Men of Russia-2022”), and discourse analysis.Results and discussion. In foreign studies, with the long-established vision and acceptance of gender problems, there is an understanding that past steps to achieve gender parity in the labor market lead to a new configuration of gender differences, which requires new efforts to eliminate them. In Russian scientific literature, the main emphasis is on monitoring the current situation of women in the professional environment, analyzing statistics and searching for hidden mechanisms of professional gender segregation.Conclusion. The results of the analysis show that in the presence of demonstrative statistics and large-scale empirical research, there is no theoretical consensus in the scientific discourse about the professional gender situation. There is a clear dissonance between the statement of problems by theorists and the lack of a request to find their solution on the part of practice, where gender “neutrality” or “indifference” reigns in some professional contexts. Conclusions are drawn about the nature of the Russian scientific gender discourse, which needs to develop a thesaurus of nonbinarity and develop an effective way of reasoning about gender issues.

Stable isotopes reveal intrapopulation heterogeneity of porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus)

Porbeagle (Lamna nasus) is an ubiquist, highly mobile and long-living shark species with spatial and temporal sex and size segregation observed in catches. Porbeagle sharks were targeted by commercial fisheries in the European waters until the closure of the fishery in 2010. Most of the French fleet catches were located in Bay of Biscay, Celtic Sea and the English Channel. The aim of the study was to find out occurrences of spatial segregation within the shark population in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean based on the stable isotope method. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes (δ13C, δ15N) were measured in muscle of porbeagle sharks fished in the Bay of Biscay and the Celtic Sea between April and September 2008, and April and June 2009. Neither influence of sex nor ontogenic isotopic shift was detected in the sampled sharks, but muscle δ13C and δ15N values increased significantly from offshore towards coastal area, which reflected inter-areas variability. Realized isotopic niches were similar amongst offshore areas whilst in St Georges’ Channel muscle isotopic composition exhibited higher inter-individual variability. This underpins the lack of information on life history of porbeagle sharks and underlines the need of more information on the species movements to support population management in European waters.

RESOLVING GENDER EQUALITY: HOW FAMILY BACKGROUND CAN HELP TO RESOLVE GENDER EQUALITY IN THE EMPLOYMENT CONTEXT

Occupational segregation encompasses two distinct phases: initial labour market entry, characterised as horizontal gender segregation, and subsequent ascension to upper echelons within firms, known as vertical gender segregation. Existing scholarly work has illuminated how the labour market delineates occupations into men-dominated, women-dominated, and mixed-gender spheres (Beller, 1984; Reskin & Hartmann, 1986; Rytina & Bianchi, 1984; Ruijter & Huffman, 2003; May & McGarvey, 2017; Lewandowski et al., 2020). Concurrently, vertical gender segregation, or the glass ceiling, propels men's expedited progression to upper management positions, contributing to male dominance in this realm. This gender disparity is underscored by global senior management statistics, revealing a mere 29% female representation (Catalyst, 2020). This research endeavours to dissect the familial impact on horizontal gender segregation, hypothesising its consequential role in driving vertical gender segregation. An online questionnaire was distributed to seven branches of the private college, and a total of 599 respondents were received. The descriptive statistical analysis was used to investigate which factor(s) of the family background influenced their education selection. The results found that parental role influenced the most decisions, followed by parents’ education and family's economic condition. However, there were no significant differences between the three factors, probably due to the financial assistance they received during their studies.

Gender Inequality in Education and Science

The research in the paper is directed towards the study of gender equality in science and education, with a focus on science and research activities in Serbia. The aim of the research conducted is to identify certain anomalies indicating the presence of a gender gap in education and science and to compare the trend in the domain of gender inequality with the one detected in Europe. Descriptive statistics is used in the research. The data is collected from various sources and the relevant literature that explores the gender gap in education and science, primarily focusing on the publications of the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (SORS). The research proved the presence of gender inequality in science and research activities in Serbia. In fact, the gender segregation that is present in the education system is also reflected in the field of science. The research also confirmed the existence of vertical segregation, manifested through women's extremely modest participation in management positions of institutes and faculties.

Gender equality and women’s empowerment: A bibliometric review of the literature on SDG 5 through the management lens

Despite similarities in the leadership styles of men and women, gender segregation at the highest levels of management is still widespread in many firms. The management literature on the key areas of Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) – that is, gender equality and women’s empowerment – has grown rapidly in recent years. With the launch of the SDGs in 2015 and the increasing research on their targets, it has become imperative to organise the extant literature and identify areas for future research. While previous reviews have focused on a particular SDG or the progress of overall SDGs, we make a novel attempt to analyse the research on SDG 5 from a managerial perspective using bibliometric and systematic review techniques on 1,713 research articles from the Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection database. Our review sheds light on the leading authors, institutions, outlets, articles and themes. The publications have mostly been contributed since 2016, and the geographical focus of the research has been limited to USA, UK and Australia. Three main topics were identified: board diversity, financial performance and firm value; women on boards and CSR strategies; and demographic diversity of corporate boards. An integrated framework, impediments to research and future research directions are also discussed.

Efficient sex separation by exploiting differential alternative splicing of a dominant marker in Aedes aegypti.

Only female mosquitoes consume blood giving them the opportunity to transmit deadly human pathogens. Therefore, it is critical to remove females before conducting releases for genetic biocontrol interventions. Here we describe a robust sex-sorting approach termed SEPARATOR (Sexing Element Produced by Alternative RNA-splicing of A Transgenic Observable Reporter) that exploits sex-specific alternative splicing of an innocuous reporter to ensure exclusive dominant male-specific expression. Using SEPARATOR, we demonstrate reliable sex selection from early larval and pupal stages in Aedes aegypti, and use a Complex Object Parametric Analyzer and Sorter (COPAS) to demonstrate scalable high-throughput sex-selection of first instar larvae. Additionally, we use this approach to sequence the transcriptomes of early larval males and females and find several genes that are sex-specifically expressed. SEPARATOR can simplify mass production of males for release programs and is designed to be cross-species portable and should be instrumental for genetic biocontrol interventions.

Different mechanisms of X-ray irradiation-induced male and female sterility in Aedes aegypti

BackgroundAedes aegypti (Ae. aegypti) is the major vector that transmits many diseases including dengue, Zika, and filariasis in tropical and subtropical regions. Due to the growing resistance to chemical-based insecticides, biological control methods have become an emerging direction to control mosquito populations. The sterile insect technique (SIT) deploys high doses of ionizing radiation to sterilize male mosquitoes before the release. The Wolbachia-based population suppression method of the incompatible insect technique (IIT) involves the release of Wolbachia-infected males to sterilize uninfected field females. Due to the lack of perfect sex separation tools, a low percentage of female contamination is detected in the male population. To prevent the unintentional release of these Wolbachia-infected females which might result in population replacement, a low dose of X-ray irradiation is deployed to sterilize any female escapees. However, it remains unclear whether these irradiation-induced male and female sterilizations share common mechanisms.ResultsIn this work, we set out to define the minimum dose of X-ray radiation required for complete female sterilization in Ae. aegypti (NEA-EHI strain). Further results showed that this minimum dose of X-ray irradiation for female sterilization significantly reduced male fertility. Similar results have been reported previously in several operational trials. By addressing the underlying causes of the sterility, our results showed that male sterility is likely due to chromosomal damage in the germ cells induced by irradiation. In contrast, female sterility appears to differ and is likely initiated by the elimination of the somatic supporting cells, which results in the blockage of the ovariole maturation. Building upon these findings, we identified the minimum dose of X-ray irradiation on the Wolbachia-infected NEA-EHI (wAlbB-SG) strain, which is currently being used in the IIT-SIT field trial. Compared to the uninfected parental strain, a lower irradiation dose could fully sterilize wAlbB-SG females. This suggests that Wolbachia-carrying mosquitoes are more sensitive to irradiation, consistent with a previous report showing that a lower irradiation dose fully sterilized Wolbachia-infected Ae. aegypti females (Brazil and Mexican strains) compared to those uninfected controls.ConclusionsOur findings thus reveal the distinct mechanisms of ionizing X-ray irradiation-induced male or female sterility in Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, which may help the design of X-ray irradiation-based vector control methods.

Benevolent Sexism: Understanding the Factors, Impact, and Implications for Gender Equality

This paper summarizes previous research articles on Benevolent Sexism (BS) from the perspectives of the role of attachment. The aim is to promote gender equality and improve the fairness experienced by individuals. The research findings indicate that women are more susceptible to accepting gender discrimination displayed by men, hindering their awareness of gender equality. Additionally, women with high attachment anxiety tend to prefer men who support BS attitudes, as BS weakens the recognition of sexism. Social factors also influence BS, as women are more inclined to form relationships with men who hold BS attitudes due to ignorance of the harmful consequences and the influence of evolution and social culture. BS also leads to gender segregation and differences, impeding women's achievements in male-dominated positions. However, the methods used in the aforementioned studies primarily involve questionnaires or scenario simulations, and it would be beneficial to incorporate behavioral experiments and other assessment methods to mitigate inevitable dishonesty. Furthermore, research on BS can be expanded to other fields such as political science, economics, and media studies to gain a more comprehensive understanding of its role and impact, and to develop effective countermeasures. Additionally, interdisciplinary and comparative studies can further enhance people’s understanding of BS, including its acceptance and impact in different cultural contexts, as well as the dissemination methods and influencing factors within social groups.

Sex-Related Gene Network Revealed by Transcriptome Differentiation of Bisexual and Unisexual Flowers of Orchid Cymbidium tortisepalum

Despite extensive research on orchid reproductive strategies, the genetic studies of sex differentiation in the orchid family are still lacking. In this study, we compared three sexual phenotypes of Cymbidium tortisepalum bisexual flowers as well as female and male unisexual mutants. Through comparative transcriptomes, we analyzed the sex-biased differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and gene co-expression networks of sex organs (gynostemium and ovary) among them, identified the candidate genes of sex differentiation, and validated their expression by qRT-PCR. The C. tortisepalum unisexual mutants with degenerated phenotypes were compared to the bisexual plants with respect to both the flower organs and plant morphologies. Totally, 12,145, 10,789, and 14,447 genes were uniquely expressed in the female, male, and hermaphrodite sex organs, respectively. A total of 4291 sex-biased DEGs were detected among them, with 871, 2867, and 1937 DEGs in the comparisons of bisexual vs. female, bisexual vs. male, and male vs. female flowers, respectively. Two co-expressed network modules, with 81 and 419 genes were tightly correlated with female sexual traits, while two others with 265 and 135 genes were highly correlated with male sexual traits. Two female-biased hub genes (CtSDR3b and CtSDR3b-like) nested in the female modules, the homologs of maize sex determinant tasselseed2, may control the feminization of C. tortisepalum. At the same time, two male-biased hub genes (CtYAB2 and CtYAB5) nested in the male modules, the homologs of grape sex determinant VviYABBY3, may control the androphany of C. tortisepalum. This study discovered the molecular regulation networks and proposed a model for orchid sex differentiation, therefore providing for the first time the genetic basis for the sex separation in the orchid family.

Size class, sex ratio, and spatial distribution of four populations of Pimelea microcephala subsp. microcephala under different long-term rainfall regimes

The separation of sexes in dioecious plants enables males and females to adopt different strategies to balance reproduction and growth, but can also lead to female susceptibility due to their high reproductive burden. Understanding if a dioecious species is susceptible or adaptable in the face of worsening abiotic conditions would be useful for revegetating habitats under climate change. Our study compared four populations of the Australian native shrub, Pimelea microcephala subsp. microcephala (n = 885) across an annual rainfall gradient of ∼250–400 mm to understand the impact of decreasing rainfall on size classes, growth metrics, sex ratio, the proportion of juveniles and spatial distributions. We found that irrespective of site rainfall, male and female plants achieved similar sizes. The populations exhibited four size classes, defined by height, diameter and sex, but not site rainfall (unpaired group method with arithmetic mean cluster analysis, p < .05). Spatially, populations reflected the clumped distribution of overlying canopy cover, and did not demonstrate niche partitioning between sexes. The lack of population variation with rainfall indicates that the species may be suitable for arid zone revegetation in arid regions with declining rainfall. Conservation management of the species should include maintaining canopy tree cover to encourage seed dispersal.

Insights into the functional properties of a natural free amino acid mix: Effect on growth performance, nutrient metabolism, and immune response in a carnivorous fish, Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer)

Dietary supplements containing a functional feed additive have been shown to be beneficial to fish and shellfish aquaculture. However, the functional properties of aquafeed formulations have rarely been reported in fish. This study aimed to investigate the effects of natural free amino acid mix (FAAM) supplementation as a functional solution on the growth performance and nutrient utilization in a carnivorous fish, Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer). Five isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets were prepared with graded supplementation levels of FAAM at 0 % (control group), 0.25 %, 0.50 %, 0.75 %, and 1.0 %, denoted as FAAM0, FAAM0.25, FAAM0.5, FAAM0.75, and FAAM1.0, respectively. The experimental fish were fed different dietary FAAM supplementations to apparent satiation twice daily for eight weeks. Significant improvements were observed in the growth performance of fish among the five groups (P < 0.05). Fish fed with FAAM0.75 displayed significantly increased activities of lysozyme, myeloperoxidase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase (P < 0.05). The activities of digestive enzymes, including amylase, protease, and lipase, were enhanced by the supplementation of FAAM in the feed (P < 0.05), especially for the groups that contained more than 0.5 % FAAM in the feed. Furthermore, the morphological profile of the intestinal tract, including the mucosal fold height, width, thickness, and goblet cell, increased in fish fed with FAAM at 1.0 % (P < 0.05). Moreover, FAAM supplementation in diets not only modulated the expression of immune-related genes (glutathione peroxidase (GPx), complement (C)3, C4, and C-reactive protein) in the liver but also positively impacted the growth-ralated genes, including growth hormone (GH), GH receptor (GHR), insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), and IGF-II. In addition, the amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids (mainly oleic acid (C18:1n9c)) and polyunsaturated fatty acids-especially γ-linolenic acid (C18:3 n6) and α-linolenic acid (C18:3n3)-increased in fish fed with diets containing FAAMs (P < 0.05). Interestingly, the diets supplemented with FAAMs also had a positive effect on the economic indices in terms of revenue-to-cost ratios. These findings provide a scientific basis for the application of FAAMs as a functional solution that can be used in feed formulations for Asian seabass.

Time-Dependent Proteomic Signatures Associated with Embryogenic Callus Induction in Carica papaya L.

Sex segregation increases the cost of Carica papaya production through seed-based propagation. Therefore, in vitro techniques are an attractive option for clonal propagation, especially of hermaphroditic plants. Here, we performed a temporal analysis of the proteome of C. papaya calli aiming to identify the key players involved in embryogenic callus formation. Mature zygotic embryos used as explants were treated with 20 μM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid to induce embryogenic callus. Total proteins were extracted from explants at 0 (zygotic embryo) and after 7, 14, and 21 days of induction. A total of 1407 proteins were identified using a bottom-up proteomic approach. The clustering analysis revealed four distinct patterns of protein accumulation throughout callus induction. Proteins related to seed maturation and storage are abundant in the explant before induction, decreasing as callus formation progresses. Carbohydrate and amino acid metabolisms, aerobic respiration, and protein catabolic processes were enriched throughout days of callus induction. Protein kinases associated with auxin responses, such as SKP1-like proteins 1B, accumulated in response to callus induction. Additionally, regulatory proteins, including histone deacetylase (HD2C) and argonaute 1 (AGO1), were more abundant at 7 days, suggesting their role in the acquisition of embryogenic competence. Predicted protein-protein networks revealed the regulatory role of proteins 14-3-3 accumulated during callus induction and the association of proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation and hormone response. Our findings emphasize the modulation of the proteome during embryogenic callus initiation and identify regulatory proteins that might be involved in the activation of this process.

TRENDS IN EMPLOYMENT AND WAGES IN THE LABOR MARKET OF KAZAKHSTAN

Purpose of the research – To determine trends in employment and wages in the labor market of Kazakhstan, depending on the level of qualification.Methodology – The study was carried out by the desk method and consisted of two stages. At the first stage of the study, general indicators of employment and wages were analyzed, at the second - depending on the level of qualification. The source base was the statistical data of the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan. A limitation of the study was the lack of data on employment by age and region, as well as the studied statistical data for a certain period of time. The main research methods were comparison, economic and statistical analysis, horizontal and vertical analysis.Originality / value of the research – The study of employment and wages is especially relevant in the post-pandemic period, since the pandemic and the acceleration of digital transformation associated with it had a noticeable impact on the labor market development. This study is aimed at filling a research gap in the study of employment and wages in Kazakhstan’s labor market, depending on the level of qualification.Findings - The following trends can be distinguished in the labor market of Kazakhstan: an increase in employment in the tertiary sector of the economy, an increase in employment in the sectors of highly qualified services, an increase in the share of highly qualified and highly educated employees in the total number of employees, an increase in employment among women, a decrease in employment in professions and specialties related to routine physical work and repetitive learning tasks, rapid wage growth for skilled workers, gender segregation, wage inequality, including gender.

Intra-couple comparison, intra-gender comparison and class identity of Chinese couples

As gender segregation decreases and women's education levels rise in Chinese society, there is growing interest in exploring how the social status of husbands and wives impacts their class identity. However, the role of relative social status in shaping couples' respective class identities remains less well understood. This research aims to address this gap by systematically examining the influence on couples' respective class identities of intra-couple comparisons between husbands and wives, as well as husbands' or wives' respective social comparisons with other individuals of the same gender in society, thus providing a comprehensive framework for understanding "intra-couple" and "intra-gender" comparisons in the context of class identity. Using data from the 2010–2018 China General Social Survey, our findings suggest that the relative social status of the husbands as compared to other married men in society, but not that of wives, plays a crucial role in shaping couples' respective class identities. This intra-gender comparison effect is stronger than intra-couple comparison and has remained relatively consistent over time. These findings align with the traditional Chinese gender norm that emphasizes "male dominance in the public sphere and female dominance in the private sphere" and provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the formation of class identity among Chinese couples.

The gender pay platform gap during the COVID‐19 pandemic and the role of platform gender segregation in Australia

AbstractProgress towards pay equity between men and women in the Australian economy stalled during the COVID‐19 pandemic, highlighting once again the gendered impact of the pandemic. However, little is known about the impact of the pandemic on the gender pay gap in the platform economy. Drawing on data from an Australian survey of platform workers (n = 947) during the early months of the pandemic (2020), this research investigates how the pandemic impacted the gender pay gap across different platform types—care, delivery and driving, microwork, and marketplace—and the platform economy overall. The findings show that the gendered segregated nature of platform work compounded by the uneven impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on particular types of platform work increased the pay gap between men and women. This research also sought to examine the mechanisms behind the gender pay gap, finding that human capital differences and platform gender segregation largely explain the gender pay gap on platforms in Australia. There was an association between parenthood and earnings, but this is moderated by human capital and platform type, suggesting that differences in earnings amongst parents are explained by these factors. The research finds that the gender gap across the platform economy increased by five percentage points, indicating that the gendered impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic also affected the platform economy.