Sex Role Orientation Research Articles

Sex-Role Orientation and Attitudes towards Women: Differences among College Athletes and Nonathletes

A total of 365 men (96 nonathletes, 106 individual sportsmen, 163 team sportsmen) completed a measure of sex-role orientation, the Bern Sex-role Inventory, a measure of views of women's roles (the Attitudes Towards Women Scale), and an index of attitudes towards men's and women's premarital heterosexual behavior, the Reiss Premarital Sexual Permissiveness Scale. Analyses indicated that competitive team athletes were significantly more masculine, were more tolerant of premarital sexual behavior for both sexes, and showed less egalitarian views towards women than did their nonathlete and individual athlete peers. No differences in femininity were observed between the groups. The results support the contention that success in athletics is associated with masculine characteristics and indicate the desirability of considering type of athletic activity when discussing the characteristics of athletes.

The relationship between sex-role orientation and resolution of eriksonian developmental crises

A total of 139 female and 133 male undergraduates completed the Bem Sex-role Inventory and the Inventory of Psychosocial Development, a measure of resolution of Erikson's developmental crises, in a study designed to assess the relationship between sex roles and psychological adjustment. The results indicated that the androgynous subjects had higher adjustment scores than subjects in the other three sex-role classifications. Further analyses revealed that both the masculinity and femininity components of androgyny were significant predictors of adjustment, reinforcing the suggestion that androgyny is a more optimal sex role. It was also demonstrated that the masculine component of androgyny was associated more strongly with adjustment. The results are discussed in terms of theories of the virtue of an androgynous as opposed to sex-typed sex role.

Sex roles and depression: A preliminary investigation of the direction of causality

The present study examined the direction of the relation between sex role self-concept and depression. A total of 23 males and 32 females were given the Personal Attributes Questionnaire and the Beck Depression Inventory at two times separated by a 3-month interval. Results of a cross-lagged panel correlational analysis found no evidence for sex role orientation as a cause of depression. Instead, the data suggested that emotional well being precedes self-perceived instrumentality, but the influence of third variables could not be overlooked. The implications of these data are discussed with particular reference to the need for more complex theoretical formulations of the relation between self-perceived instrumentality and adjustment.

Androgyny, ego development, and psychosocial crisis resolution

The present study examined the relationship of psychological androgyny with ego development in the context of Loevinger's theory and with psychosocial crisis resolution from the perspective of Erikson's theory. A sample of 30 male and 30 female adults completed the Bem Sex-role Inventory, the Washington University Sentence Completion Test, and the Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD). The androgynous individuals were predominate in the higher stages of Loevinger's hierarchical model of ego development, with the masculine sex-typed orientation falling between the androgynous and feminine sex-typed groups. The highest scores on psychosocial personality development, as assessed by the IPD, were obtained by those with an androgynous sex-role orientation, followed by those with masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated orientations, in that order. These results support the view that psychological androgyny represents an added adaptive capacity that can be developed in association with the development of higher ego functioning. These findings applied equally to both sexes and all age groups.

Sex-Role Attitudes and Attitudes to Marriage Among Urban Greek-Australian and Anglo-Australian Youth

Eighty-eight (45 male, 43 female) Greek-Australian and 89 (43 male, 46 female) Anglo-Australian young people, all residents of a multi-ethnic city with relatively small immigrant groups, completed a self-administered questionnaire which explored sexrole orientation and stereotypes and attitudes to marriage. Greek-Australian subjects of both sexes described themselves as having higher levels of masculine traits, and to desire these traits more, than did Anglo-Australian subjects. Other results revealed that Greek-Australian subjects advocated a less egalitarian pattern of decision-making within marriage, and that they placed more importance than Anglo-Australians on the practical and familial aspects of married life. Thus, Greek values and attitudes to marriage and sex roles appear to maintain some influence on these second generation Greek-Australians.

Sex, Sex Roles, and Emotional Expressiveness

Abstract Differences in emotional expressiveness between males and females have generally been attributed to sex-role socialization, but most studies have not included measures of sex-role orientation. We hypothesized that sex role would be a more salient factor than sex and that androgynous and feminine persons would be more expressive than masculine and undifferentiated individuals. Data were gathered from 230 college students using Bem's (1975) Sex-Role Inventory and Balswick's (1975) Expression of Emotion Scale. Both hypotheses were supported.

Determinants of Mobility in Two-Earner Families: Does the Wife's Income Count?

2 recently emerging US mobility trends are that 1) families with employed wives are less migratory than families with nonemployed wives especially when the wifes job attachment is strong and 2) more career-oriented wives are initiating family moves with husband and children following. This study examines demographic predictors--age wifes employment status the number of children education and income--of family mobility as well as attitudinal predictors--role salience and sex role orientation. Using a national subsample of 107 employed married couples factor analysis was used to analyze data separatley by gender. For wives sex role orientation role salience and individual income influenced mobility although individual income was by far the most critical predictor. As wives income increased they influenced past and future mobility more. For husbands individual income role salience sex role orientation and wifes employment status were the variables significantly related to mobility. As husbands income and provider-parental roles increased in importance so did the likeliness that his job had the most influence on past and future moves. However husbands who were more egalitarian in their sex role preferences and who were married to women with higher job status were more likely to consider their wives job requirements in future moves. Mobility decisions in dual earner families are becoming more complex.

A Comparison of sex role orientation between women with bulimia and normal controls

A group of women (n = 38) who met the DSM-III critieria for bulimia and a group of normal control women (n = 26) between the ages of 18–34 were administered the revised version of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (1981) to test the hypothesis that bulimic women are “hyperfeminine” in their sex-role orientation. Both the original and the median split method of scoring the data were employed. The hypothesis was not supported: normal controls scored higher than bulimics on the femininity scale. The findings from both scoring methods reflect a tendency for the bulimic women to systematically score lower than the controls on all sex-typed items resulting in significantly more bulimics in the “undifferentiated” category. This scoring pattern can be understood as an indication of low self-esteem or as a less well-defined sense of self. It was hypothesized that both possibilities would increase these young women's susceptibility to developing bulimic symptoms.

Sex Role Orientation

In the present study college students (N = 279) completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory, then observed videotapes that showed a model handling several social conflict situations in an assertive or unassertive manner. Both male and female models were used. Subjects then completed a 26-item adjective checklist to evaluate the model they observed. Results indicated that neither subjects' sex role orientation nor models' sex influenced observers' social evaluations. The models' actual behavior was the most significant determinant of observers' reactions. Evaluations of the models also were influenced, although to a lesser extent, by observers' biological sex. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Sex Role Orientation and Type a Behavior Pattern

Male and female college students completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Jenkins Activity Survey, a part of which is the Type A Scale. Correlational results showed that as Type A scores increased, BSRI scores decreased (more masculine sex role orientation). Analysis of variance showed that males and females with masculine sex role orientations (SROs) had significantly higher Type A scores than those with androgynous SROs, who in turn had significantly higher Type A scores than those with feminine SROs.

The Effects of Perceived Job Availability for Women on College Women's Attitudes Toward Prestigious Male-Dominated Occupations

This study investigated the effects of perceived job availability for women and sex role orientation on college women's evaluations of highly prestigious male-dominated occupations. In a mixed design, feminine, androgynous, and masculine women (as determined by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire) evaluated two professions described as providing good opportunities for women, two described as providing average opportunities, and two described as providing poor opportunities. Subjects were most likely to want to pursue occupations with good job availability for women and to expect the most intellectual stimulation and approval from others as a result of pursuing these occupations. In addition, sex role orientation was related to expectations concerning intellectual stimulation and approval from others but did not interact with level of job opportunity on any of the dependent measures.

Relationships Among Fear of Success, Fear of Failure, and Androgyny

Fear of success, fear of failure, and sex role orientation were examined in engineering undergraduates using the Fear of Success Scale (FOSS; Zuckerman & Allison, 1976), the Debilitating Anxiety Scale (DAS; Alpert & Haber, 1960), and the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974), respectively. The correlation ( r = .45) between fear of success and fear of failure supported the finding of Griffore (1977). BSRI subscale scores rather than BSRI sex role category scores increased the predictability of FOSS and DAS. Fear of success was found to be a sex-role-related construct whereas fear of failure was found to be a gender-related construct.

Sex-role orientation and psychological adjustment: Implications for the masculinity model

The present study tested the theory that masculine persons are as favorably adjusted psychologically as androgynous persons. Grouped on the basis of Bem Sex Role Inventory scores, androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated college males and females were compared on MMPI, self-efficacy, and assertiveness measures. Strong support was obtained for superior adjustment of masculine males and females. A factor analysis was performed to elucidate the nature of the Masculinity scale, and it suggested that masculinity is related to assertiveness and self-efficacy rather than to the absence of maladjustment.

The ?good manager?: Sex-typed, androgynous, or likable?

Recent studies have indicated that people describe a “good manager” in masculine terms. It was hypothesized that this could simply reflect cultural stereotypes, rather than people's perceptions of what combination of traits is desirable in a leader. In Experiments 1 and 2, subjects were presented managerial profiles ascribing all masculine, all feminine, or a combination of masculine and feminine traits (i.e., “androgynous” profiles) to hypothetical managers. Feminine-trait combinations were rated as significantly less desirable than either masculine or androgynous combinations, which were rated as equally desirable. Thus, while femininity per se was not seen as desirable in a leader, it was not viewed as a liability when combined with masculinity, a corroboration of much behavioral research on androgyny. Experiment 3 varied trait likableness and sex-role orientation. Experiments 1 and 2 were replicated for unlikable traits. Surprisingly, the opposite pattern was obtained for likable traits: the feminine combinations were rated as the most desirable, and the masculine combinations were rated as the least desirable. The results are discussed in the context of early research on impression formation and recent work on social cognition.

Sex-role orientation, intimacy of topic, and target person differences in self-disclosure among women

The focus of the present study was self-disclosure patterns of young women in three types of close relationships: same-sex friend, opposite-sex friend, and romantic partner. The influences of respondents' sex-role orientation and intimacy level of topic on self-disclosure in the three relationships were examined. Androgynous respondents were more willing to disclose than sex-typed and undifferentiated respondents, and disclosure willingness was highest to romantic partner, then to female friend, and least to male friend. Intimacy level of topic interacted with target person so that wider variations in disclosure willingness occured in medium and high intimacy topics. Sex-role orientation interacted with intimacy level of topic so that androgynous respondents were more willing to disclose on high intimacy levels than either undifferentiated or feminine-typed respondents, but the groups did not differ significantly on low or medium intimacy topics. The significant interaction effects indicate that research on self-disclosure patterns needs to address the complexity of factors that may impact on self-disclosure.

Relationship of Socialization and Stress to Perimenstrual Symptoms, Disability, and Menstrual Attitudes

This study examined the influence of socialization and exposure to a stressful milieu on perimenstrual symptoms, related disability, and menstrual attitudes. Women (N = 179) aged 18 to 35 were interviewed using the Index of Sex Role Orientation, Schedule of Recent Events, Moos Menstrual Distress Questionnaire, and Menstrual Attitudes Questionnaire, Path analysis was used to assess a model based on Mechanic's (1962, 1980) concept of illness behavior for negative affect, pain, and water retention symptoms during the perimenstruum. Exposure to a stressful milieu was useful in explaining cyclic, recurrent symptoms of negative affect. Of all the symptom clusters, negative affect was found to be the most important cause of perimenstrual disability. Traditional socialization, intense negative affect symptoms, and related disability all influenced menstrual attitudes.

A Comparison of Childfree and Child-Anticipated Married Couples

Among ever-married women aged 20-24 US childlessness rates increased from 25% in 1960 to 44.7% in 1975. It is currently estimated that 10% of all ever-married women remain childless with approximately 1/2 doing so voluntarily. This study takes an approach of using postponers as a control group and studies couples directly; it focuses on the quality and type of marriage and the sex role orientation of the spouses. The study does not show a significant difference between childfree and child-anticipated couples with respect to marital adjustment marital type and sex role orientation although a trend was observed suggesting that childfree women tend to view themselves as less sex-typed than child-anticipated women. These findings contrast with studies reporting higher marital adjustment for the childfree when they are compared to parents. The younger husbands were found to have more traditional sex role orientations with no differences observed between the groups; the middle aged husbands were found to be less sex stereotyped with the childfree less sex-typed than the child-anticipated; and the older subjects were found to be mostly androgynous with no differences between the groups. Overall the available literature indicates that childfree couples do not differ from child-anticipated couples in regard to their marital adjustment but that the childfree report better marital adjustment than parents. Given the negative attitudes toward the childfree it is important that educators create an atmosphere that regards voluntary childlessness as a valid lifestyle.

Women's Occupational Experiences in the 1970s: Sociology and Economics

Previous articleNext article No AccessReview EssaysWomen's Occupational Experiences in the 1970s: Sociology and EconomicsShirley HarkessShirley Harkess Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Signs Volume 10, Number 3Spring, 1985 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/494157 Views: 3Total views on this site Citations: 6Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1985 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:LYNN WEBER CANNON, ELIZABETH HIGGINBOTHAM, MARIANNE L. A. LEUNG RACE AND CLASS BIAS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ON WOMEN, Gender & Society 2, no.44 (Jun 2016): 449–462.https://doi.org/10.1177/089124388002004003Lois Van Cleve Nursing Image as Reflected in Sex Role Preferences, Journal of Nursing Education 27, no.99 (Nov 1988): 390–393.https://doi.org/10.3928/0148-4834-19881101-04Joan M. Anderson MIgration and health: perspectives on immigrant women., Sociology of Health and Illness 9, no.44 (Dec 1987): 410–438.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.ep11339978Håkon Leiulfsrud, Alison Woodward Women at Class Crossroads: Repudiating Conventional Theories of Family Class, Sociology 21, no.33 (Aug 1987): 393–412.https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038587021003006Annelies Knoppers Gender and the Coaching Profession, Quest 39, no.11 (Apr 1987): 9–22.https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1987.10483853Richard Swedberg Women in the Economy, Current Sociology 35, no.11 (Mar 1987): 65–77.https://doi.org/10.1177/001139287035001009

The influence of sex-role orientation on ratings of perceived exertion

Previous research has shown that feminine-typed women have an aversion to strenuous physical activity and when engaging in cross-sex behavior may experience psychological distress. Given the growing interest in aerobic exercise, the present study was designed to test whether sex-role orientation mediated the report of physical exertion. Subjects were 33 college-aged women selected from three categories: masculine, feminine, and androgynous. Procedures required that each subject complete two one-hour testing sessions. The first session was employed to collect anthropometric data and to evaluate maximum aerobic capacity, while the second session consisted of subjects completing a preperformance affect scale and subsequently running for 30 minutes at a preestablished work intensity. Results revealed that those who were feminine-typed gave significantly higher exertional ratings than either the masculine or androgynous women. The fact that the feminine group was less positive about the task suggests that the observed perceptual differences may have been due to affective schemata which have been hypothesized to mediate the perception of pain.

Dating jealousy among college students

In a study of dating jealousy, questionnaires were administered to 147 male and 189 female college students. Subjects were asked to rate how they would feel about their dating partner's behavior in five hypothetical situations designed to measure jealousy. Results indicate that females are more jealous than males over situations involving the partner spending time on a hobby or with family members, but other situations evoke no sex differences. Sex-role orientation is the variable most consistently related to dating jealousy, with sex-role traditional subjects being the most jealous. A significant proportion of subjects expect dating partners to give up close personal friendships with others of the opposite sex, and most subjects begin to expect sexual exclusiveness from the earliest stages of their relationships.