Sex Hormones In Postmenopausal Women Research Articles

The association between blood heavy metals level and sex hormones among postmenopausal women in the US.

Environmental pollutants could be implicated in female endocrine setting Q6 beyond traditional factors. Until now, few study has focused on the association of environmental exposure to heavy metals with sex hormones in postmenopausal women. This study intended to investigate whether serum levels of heavy metals(i.e., Cd, Pb, Hg, Mn, Se) would influence sex hormones in postmenopausal women. A cross-sectional study was performed on 614 nationally representative participants from 2013-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in the US. Multivariate linear regression models and restricted cubic spline plots revealed cadmium(Cd) had linear positive association with TT(β=3.25, 95%CI= 1.12, 5.38), bioavailable TT(β=1.78, 95%CI=0.36,3.21) and TT/E2(β=0.76, 95%CI=0.28,1.24), which was more apparent in natural menopausal and obese women. Lead(Pb) had linear positive association with SHBG(β=12.84, 95%CI= 6.77,18.91), which was apparent in nearly all subgroups except in normal BMI group, and TT/E2 (β=0.69, 95%CI 0.134,1.25), which was apparent in natural menopausal and normal BMI women. Manganese(Mn) had non-linear association with SHBG, which was more apparent in natural menopausal and obese women, and TT/E2, which was more apparent in natural menopausal and normal BMI women. Selenium(Se) had U shaped non-linear association with TT, which was more apparent in hysterectomy, overweight and obese women, and SHBG, which was apparent in nearly all subgroups except in normal BMI group. In summary, this cross-sectional study indicates a possible role that various degree of environmental exposure to heavy metals plays in the disruption of sex Q5 hormone levels in postmenopausal women. Further experiments are needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Author Correction: Association between hormone replacement therapy and sex hormones in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Correction to: Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2023; 27 (11): 5264-5279. DOI: 10.26355/eurrev_202306_32646-PMID:37318501-published online on June 13, 2023. After publication, the authors applied a correction in the Funding section. The section has been amended as follows: This study was supported by a grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81671421). Moreover, the corresponding author's name was wrong. Therefore, in accordance with the email address, the correct corresponding author has been corrected from D.-H. LU to L.-Z. XU. There are amendments to this paper. The Publisher apologizes for any inconvenience this may cause. https://www.europeanreview.org/article/32646.

Association between hormone replacement therapy and sex hormones in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

The aim of the study was to systematically review and meta-analyze the available data on changes in the hormonal profile of postmenopausal women treated with hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Full-text articles published up to April 30, 2021, were searched through PUBMED, EMBASE, the Cochrane library and Web of Science (WOS) databases and were screened strictly according to inclusion criteria. Randomized clinical trials and case control studies were enrolled. Studies not reporting steroid serum levels or not providing a control group were excluded from the analysis. Studies enrolling women with genetic defects or severe chronic systemic diseases were excluded. Data are expressed as standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Random effect models were used for the meta-analysis. HRT administration increases estradiol (E2) and reduces follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) serum levels compared with pre-treatment. Their changes are evident when oral and transdermal HRT are administered, while vaginal HRT not. No significant effect on E2 and FSH was found between 6 and 12 months, as well as between 12 and 24 months. No significant effect on E2 and FSH was shown between different regimes. No difference was observed between different HRT regarding their effect on lipid profiles, breast pain and vaginal bleeding, but oral estrogen combined synthetic progestin caused a reduction in sex hormone-binding globulin (SHGB). The review suggested oral and transdermal HRT could lead to a rise in E2 serum levels and a decrease in FSH. The types and doses of HRT did not seem to modify the E2 and FSH level. Also, oral estrogen combined synthetic progestin could cause a reduction in SHGB. This might be crucial when choosing the best possible treatment for each patient individually taking into consideration if potential benefits outweigh the risks.

ENDOGENOUS SEX HORMONES LEVELS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE REVISED FRAMINGHAM STROKE RISK PROFILE IN POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN – A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY IN A SWEDISH COHORT

Objective: Levels of endogenous sex hormones in postmenopausal women have been associated with the risk of cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between eight different endogenous sex hormones and the revised Framingham stroke risk profile (rFSRP) in Swedish postmenopausal women. Design and method: This is an observational cross-sectional study within the Vara Skövde cohort, a Swedish population-based study with the main focus on detecting hypertension and diabetes at an early stage. The participants in the present study were physically examined in 2002–2004, and endogenous sex hormones (-17-hydroxy progesterone, estrone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), estradiol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, testosterone, and progesterone) were analyzed with a validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay. Women 55 years old or older, with estradiol levels lower than 20 pg/mL, and non-users of hormonal therapy were included in the study (N = 146). Outcome variable was rFSRP, which estimates the individual´s 10-year risk of stroke based on blood pressure, smoking, atrial fibrillation, age, previous cardiovascular disease and diabetes status. Regression analyses of log-transformed rFSRP were fitted against sex hormones, adjusting for body mass index (BMI) or waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) (depending on which variable was more associated with hormone levels), C-reactive protein (CRP) and total cholesterol level. Results: Progesterone levels showed a positive association with rFSRP when adjusting for BMI. (18% increase in rFSRP per SD increase in progesterone, p = 0.020). Estrone was positively associated with rFSRP in the model adjusting for BMI (17 % increase in rFSRP per SD increase in estrone level, p = 0.020). Testosterone showed a positive association in the model adjusting for WHR (13 % increase in rFSRP per SD increase in testosterone, p = 0.019). Additional adjustments for CRP and cholesterol did not change the results for any of the hormones. No significant associations between other hormones and rFSRP were observed in this study. Conclusions: Increase in levels of estrone, testosterone and progesterone in postmenopausal women was associated with increase of rFSRP. Prospective studies are warranted for a better understanding of the importance of sex hormone levels for cardiovascular health in postmenopausal women.

Cardiometabolic Risk Factors and Endogenous Sex Hormones in Postmenopausal Women: A Cross-Sectional Study.

ContextIt is uncertain which cardiovascular risk factors are associated with sex hormone levels in postmenopausal women.ObjectiveThis work aimed to investigate the association between cardiometabolic risk factors and sex hormones in a cross-sectional, observational population study.MethodsIn this Swedish population study, participants were physically examined from 2002 to 2004, and endogenous sex hormones were analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Women aged 55 years or older with estradiol levels below 20 pg/mL and not using any hormonal therapy were eligible for inclusion in the study (N = 146). Variable selection and bootstrap stability analyses were performed and linear regression models presented, with each of the 8 hormones as outcome variables.ResultsBody mass index (BMI) was positively associated with estradiol (β = 0.054, P < .001), but negatively associated with 17-α-hydroxyprogesterone (β = –0.023, P = .028). Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) was negatively associated with dihydrotestosterone (β = –2.195, P = .002) and testosterone (β = –1.541, P = .004). The homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance was positively associated with androstenedione (β = 0.071, P = .032), estradiol (β = 0.091, P = .009), estrone (β = 0.075, P = 0.009), and 17-α-hydroxyprogesterone (β = 0.157, P = .001). Age was positively associated with testosterone (β = 0.017, P = .042). C-reactive protein showed an inverse association with progesterone (β = –0.028, P = .037). Lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol was associated with higher estradiol levels (β = –0.093, P = .049), whereas lower triglycerides were associated with higher concentrations of dihydrotestosterone (β = –0.208, P = .016).ConclusionIn postmenopausal women, WHR was strongly inversely associated with androgens, while BMI was positively associated with estrogens.

Clinical significance of serum sex hormones in postmenopausal women with vestibular migraine: potential role of estradiol

ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate the role of sex hormones in postmenopausal women with vestibular migraine.MethodsThis observational study included 242 female patients with vestibular migraine who were postmenopausal during April 2017 to December 2019. Serum levels of sex hormones, including estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin, were determined by radioimmunoassay. The duration and frequency (every month) of onset of vestibular migraine were recorded. The degree of vestibular migraine was measured by the visual analogue scale.ResultsSerum levels of estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone were significantly lower, while serum prolactin levels were significantly higher in postmenopausal patients with vestibular migraine compared with healthy controls. Serum estradiol levels were negatively correlated with the duration, frequency, and severity of onset of vestibular migraine. Patients with higher serum estradiol levels showed a longer disease-free survival time.ConclusionSex hormones are correlated with vestibular migraine in postmenopausal women. Additionally, estradiol levels are correlated with the duration, frequency, and severity of onset of vestibular migraine, as well as the disease-free survival time.

Perfluoroalkyl substances and sex hormones in postmenopausal women: NHANES 2013–2016

BackgroundAlthough an alteration in sex hormones has been linked to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in premenopausal women and girls, whether such associations exist in postmenopausal women remains uncertain. ObjectsTo examine the associations between serum PFAS concentrations and sex hormone levels in postmenopausal women. MethodsData from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013–2016 waves were used. A total of 706 postmenopausal women with information on serum PFAS [perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), pefluorodecanoic acid (PFDA); perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA); linear perfluorooctanoate (n-PFOA); linear perfluorooctane sulfonate (n-PFOS); monomethyl branched isomers of PFOS (Sm-PFOS)], sex hormones indicators [e.g., total testosterone (TT), estradiol (E2) and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG)] as well as selected covariates were included. An indicator of circulating free testosterone (FT), and ratio of TT to E2 (TT/E2) were generated. Multiple linear regression accounting for the primary sampling unit, strata, and environmental sampling weights of PFAS was used for association analyses. Effect modification by obesity and type of menopause was explored via stratified analyses as well as the testing of interaction terms. Principal component analysis (PCA) and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) were conducted to assess these relationships in a multiple PFAS exposure setting. ResultsAfter adjusting for potential confounders, total perfluorooctanoate (TPFOA: n-PFOA + Sb-PFOA) and total perfluorooctane sulfonate (TPFOS: n-PFOS + Sm-PFOS), and their linear and branched isomers were positively associated with two androgen indicators (i.e., TT and FT). PCA results revealed that the principal component (PC) composed of n-PFOA was positively associated with ln (TT) [β = 0.09, 95% confidential interval (CI): 0.02, 0.16; per ln-ng/mL increase in exposure], and ln (FT) (β = 0.12, 95% CI: 0.05, 0.2) in overweight/obese [body mass index (BMI) ≥ 25 kg/m2] women, but not in those with BMI < 25 kg/m2. Additionally, among overweight/obese women, PFHxS was positively associated with androgens and negatively with ln (SHBG) (β = -0.06, 95% CI: −0.12, −0.01). The PC composed of Sm-PFOS, n-PFOS, and PFHxS was positively associated with ln (TT) levels among overweight/obese women. Results from BKMR also confirmed the findings on n-PFOA and PFHxS. ConclusionsOur study indicates that n-PFOA and PFHxS were positively associated with levels of several androgen indicators in postmenopausal women, particularly among overweight/obese ones. Given the higher risk of cardiometabolic diseases associated with elevated levels of androgens in postmenopausal women, future studies are needed to explore the potential underlying mechanisms.

Resistance training decreases plasma levels of adipokines in postmenopausal women

Physical inactivity and the onset of menopause increase the risk of cardiovascular disease amongst postmenopausal women. We aim to investigate the effect of resistance training (RT) on plasma levels of selected cytokines, adipokines, myokines, and sex hormones in postmenopausal women with vasomotor symptoms. This was a sub-study of a randomised controlled trial investigating the effects of RT on vasomotor symptoms in postmenopausal women. Women were randomised to join a 15-week RT program (n = 26) or remain sedentary as control (n = 29). Venous blood samples were taken at week-0 and week-15 for all participants. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and multiple bead assays were used to measure cytokines, adipokines, myokines, and sex hormones in plasma. Plasma measurements of 16 of 33 analytes were within detectable limits. After adjusting for good compliance in the RT group (58% of RT participants), after 15 weeks, significantly lower plasma levels of adiponectin (p < 0.001), lipocalin-2 (p < 0.01) and resistin (p = 0.04) were found. Comparing control and RT women, using change-over-time values, significant increases in median testosterone and sex hormone binding globulin levels were seen in RT women. RT intervention lowers the levels of adipokines, particularly adiponectin, in postmenopausal women with vasomotor symptoms. These results were secondary outcomes of a clinical trial, and further investigations in a larger cohort are essential with the additional control of diet control and body composition analyses. Nevertheless, our study shows RT may be a beneficial intervention in reducing inflammation amongst postmenopausal women.

Effects of vitamin D supplementation during weight loss on sex hormones in postmenopausal women.

The aim of the study was to compare the effects of vitamin D3 supplementation versus placebo on serum sex hormones in postmenopausal women completing a 12-month diet + exercise weight loss program. Two hundred eighteen overweight or obese women (50-75 y) with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D at least 10 to less than 32 ng/mL ("insufficient") were randomized to either weight loss + 2,000 IU/day oral vitamin D3, or to weight loss + daily placebo. Serum sex hormone-binding globulin, estrone, total, free, and bioavailable estradiol, and testosterone were measured by radioimmunoassay before randomization and at 12 months. Mean changes were compared between groups (intent-to-treat) using generalized estimating equations. The 12-month changes in sex hormone-binding globulin, estrone, total, free, and bioavailable estradiol, and testosterone did not differ between groups (all P > 0.05). However, a greater increase in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D was associated with a greater increase in sex hormone-binding globulin (Ptrend = 0.01), and larger decreases in free and bioavailable estradiol (Ptrend = 0.04, Ptrend = 0.03, respectively). In post-hoc analyses, we compared women randomized to vitamin D whose serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D remained insufficient (n = 38), to women who became replete (25-hydroxyvitamin D ≥32 ng/mL; n = 53). Replete women showed greater reductions in bioavailable estradiol (-1.8 vs -0.7 pg/mL), free testosterone (-0.8 vs -0.3 pg/mL), and bioavailable testosterone (-1.8 vs -0.6 ng/dL), and a greater increase in sex hormone-binding globulin (10.6 vs 4.7 nmol/L) (all P < 0.05), even after adjusting for differences in total 12-month weight loss. Overall, 12-month changes in sex hormone did not differ between groups. However, vitamin D repletion was associated with greater reductions in sex hormones during weight loss, with a possible dose-dependent effect. Future studies should test higher doses and target circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels when measuring such effects.

The Western dietary pattern is associated with increased serum concentrations of free estradiol in postmenopausal women: implications for breast cancer prevention

Little is known about the possible influence of food consumption on the serum concentrations of endogenous sex hormones in postmenopausal women. We evaluated the relationships of the Western dietary pattern with serum concentrations of free estradiol and testosterone of postmenopausal women to test the hypothesis that a highly Western dietary pattern is associated with high serum concentrations of these hormones. We used data from a representative subsample of 305 women from the control group of a population-based case-control study conducted in Mexico from 2004 to 2007. A Western dietary pattern index value was compared with log natural serum concentrations of testosterone and estradiol using multiple linear regression models. The median values of serum concentrations of free estradiol and testosterone were 0.26 pg/mL (interquartile range, 0.14-0.43) and 0.40 pg/mL (interquartile range, 0.30-0.70), respectively. A multiple linear regression model showed that for each unit increase in the Western dietary pattern index, there was a 16.2% increase in the serum concentrations of free estradiol (β=0.15; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.01-0.29); for each additional serving per week of chicken eggs, the increase was 31.0% (β=0.27; 95% CI, 0.106-0.441); for each additional serving per week of red meat, the increase was 64.9% (β=0.50; 95% CI, 0.01-1.01). There was no relationship found between dietary patterns and serum concentrations of free testosterone. The present findings suggest that intake of a Western diet, particularly of chicken eggs and meat, increases serum concentrations of free estradiol; these results have implications for breast cancer prevention.

Effect of weight loss, with or without exercise, on body composition and sex hormones in postmenopausal women: the SHAPE-2 trial.

IntroductionPhysical inactivity and overweight are risk factors for postmenopausal breast cancer. The effect of physical activity may be partially mediated by concordant weight loss. We studied the effect on serum sex hormones, which are known to be associated with postmenopausal breast cancer risk, that is attributable to exercise by comparing randomly obtained equivalent weight loss by following a hypocaloric diet only or mainly by exercise.MethodsOverweight, insufficiently active women were randomised to a diet (N = 97), mainly exercise (N = 98) or control group (N = 48). The goal of both interventions was to achieve 5–6 kg of weight loss by following a calorie-restricted diet or an intensive exercise programme combined with only a small caloric restriction. Primary outcomes after 16 weeks were serum sex hormones and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Body fat and lean mass were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry.ResultsBoth the diet (−4.9 kg) and mainly exercise (−5.5 kg) groups achieved the target weight loss. Loss of body fat was significantly greater with exercise versus diet (difference −1.4 kg, P < 0.001). In the mainly exercise arm, the reduction in free testosterone was statistically significantly greater than that of the diet arm (treatment effect ratio [TER] 0.92, P = 0.043), and the results were suggestive of a difference for androstenedione (TER 0.90, P = 0.064) and SHBG (TER 1.05, P = 0.070). Compared with the control arm, beneficial effects were seen with both interventions, diet and mainly exercise, respectively, on oestradiol (TER 0.86, P = 0.025; TER 0.83, P = 0.007), free oestradiol (TER 0.80, P = 0.002; TER 0.77, P < 0.001), SHBG (TER 1.14; TER 1.21, both P < 0.001) and free testosterone (TER 0.91, P = 0.069; TER = 0.84, P = 0.001). After adjustment for changes in body fat, intervention effects attenuated or disappeared.ConclusionsWeight loss with both interventions resulted in favourable effects on serum sex hormones, which have been shown to be associated with a decrease in postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Weight loss induced mainly by exercise additionally resulted in maintenance of lean mass, greater fitness, greater fat loss and a larger effect on (some) sex hormones. The greater fat loss likely explains the observed larger effects on sex hormones.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01511276. Registered on 12 January 2012.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13058-015-0633-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Influence of soy protein intake on blood isoflavone levels, thyroid and sex hormone concentrations in women

T is a current discussion about the hormonal impact of soy isoflavones in food on circulating of thyroid and sex hormones in women. While official statements argue the hormonal side effects, weight loss ads recommend an increased energy output induced by changes in hormonal regulation after soy intake. To describe the possible influence of intake of a commercially available soy-yogurt-honey product (Almased®) used for weight reduction and metabolic functions improvement, 14 non-obese, euthyroid postmenopausal women (64.2±6.3 years; 24.4±3.2 kg/m2) were examined over a period of 8 weeks consuming a standardized amount of the product (25 -125 g/d). The amount of soy-protein-isolate of the product was 44.2 % and the content of biologically available isoflavonoids was 1.45 mg/g powder. Blood sample were drawn to analyze blood ISF levels (genistein, daidzein, glycitein, o-DMA, equol) by a LCMS method as well as basal TSH, fT3 and fT4. Estradiol, progesterone, testosterone and DHEA were also examined. Despite the significant increases in blood ISF concentrations after all intake periods, the baseline levels of all thyroid and sex hormones was stayed within the normal range during the intervention and even after a daily intake of 125 g. ISF, e.g., genistein rose from 3.8±1.9 ng/ml to 519.2±382.7 ng/ml. Results showed that the daily intake of 25-125 gram of the tested product significantly increased the blood ISF levels. It can be assumed that at this amount of ISF intake, the supplement used had no specific influence particularly negative side effects on thyroid and sex hormones in postmenopausal women.

Associations between cadmium exposure and circulating levels of sex hormones in postmenopausal women

Recent epidemiological as well as in vivo and in vitro studies collectively suggest that the metalloestrogen cadmium (Cd) could be a potential risk factor for hormone-related cancers in particularly breast cancer. Assessment of the association between Cd exposure and levels of endogenous sex hormones is of pivotal importance, as increased levels of such have been associated with a higher risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The present study investigated the perceived relationship (multivariable-adjusted linear regression analyses) between Cd exposure [blood Cd (B-Cd) and urinary Cd (U-Cd)], and serum levels of androstenedione, testosterone, estradiol, and sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG), in 438 postmenopausal Swedish women without hormone replacement therapy (HRT). A significant positive association between B-Cd (median 3.4nmol/L) and serum testosterone levels, as well as a significant inverse association between B-Cd and serum estradiol levels and with the estradiol/testosterone ratio were encountered. However, U-Cd (median 0.69nmol/mmol creatinine) was inversely associated with serum estradiol levels only. Our data may suggest that Cd interferes with the levels of testosterone and estradiol in postmenopausal women, which might have implications for breast cancer risk.

Total dietary fat and omega-3 fatty acids have modest effects on urinary sex hormones in postmenopausal women

BackgroundTotal fat and omega-3 fatty acids in the diet may affect breast cancer risk by altering estrogen metabolism. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the effects of differing total fat and omega-3 fatty acid content of diets on a panel of urinary estrogens and metabolites.FindingsA controlled, cross-over feeding trial was conducted in postmenopausal women using three test diets: high fat diet (HF; 40% energy from fat), low fat diet (LF; 20% of energy from fat) and low fat, high omega-3 diet (LFn3; 23% energy from fat; 3% omega-3 fatty acids) for 8 week periods. Urinary hormone concentrations for 16 women were compared among diets using a linear mixed model, and within diet comparisons were made using paired t-tests. Urinary excretion of estrone was greater after the LF and LFn3 compared to the HF (P = 0.004). Estrone excretion was increased from baseline within the LF only (P = 0.02). Total estrone + estradiol + estriol increased from baseline with LF (P = 0.02) and was greater than the other two diets at 8 weeks (P = 0.03). There were no effects on estrogen metabolites, including the 2-hydroxy estrone:16α-hydroxy estrone ratio.ConclusionsThe results of this study indicate that urinary sex hormone metabolism was modestly altered in postmenopausal women by a low fat dietary intervention.

Postmenopausal plasma sex hormone levels and breast cancer risk over 20 years of follow-up

Plasma estrogen and androgen levels are positively associated with postmenopausal breast cancer risk, but how long a single blood measurement can predict risk and whether the associations vary by tumor hormone receptor status remain unclear. We conducted nested case-control analyses within the Nurses' Health Study. Blood samples were collected in 1989-1990 and again in 2000-2002. Among postmenopausal women not using postmenopausal hormones at blood collection, 707 cases were diagnosed through June 2010, with two matched controls per case. We used unconditional logistic regression analyses to estimate the relative risks controlling for other breast cancer risk factors. The intra-class correlation coefficients for two blood measurements collected 10years apart ranged from 0.54 (dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, DHEAS) to 0.74 (sex hormone-binding globulin, SHBG). Overall, women in the top (vs. bottom) 25% of levels of estradiol, free estradiol, testosterone, free testosterone, and DHEAS were at a 50-110% higher risk of breast cancer (p (trend)<0.001). SHBG was inversely associated with risk (p (trend)=0.004). RRs were similar when comparing cases diagnosed 1-10 versus 11-20years (or 16-20years) after blood collection (p (interaction)>0.2). Except for DHEAS, the associations varied significantly by hormone receptor status (p (heterogeneity)≤0.02). For example, the RRs (95% CIs) comparing the highest versus lowest quartile were 2.8 (2.0-4.0; p (trend)<0.001) for ER+/PR+tumors versus 1.1 (0.6-2.1; p (trend)=0.98) for ER-/PR- tumors for estradiol, and 1.8 (1.3-2.5; p (trend)<0.001) versus 0.6 (0.3-1.2; p (trend)=0.35) for testosterone. One measure of circulating sex hormones in postmenopausal women can predict risk of hormone receptor positive breast cancer for up to 16-20years.

Cognitive function in association with sex hormones in postmenopausal women

Several studies have suggested gender differences in cognitive function, but data on the association between sex hormones and cognitive function are contradictory. The aim of our randomized double-blind study was to explore the possible relations between cognitive function and serum levels of sex hormones, oxytocin and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in postmenopausal women. Two-hundred healthy postmenopausal women were randomly assigned to receive estrogen, testosterone or placebo treatment for 1 month. The associations of spatial ability, verbal fluency and verbal memory with serum levels of estradiol, testosterone, estradiol/testosterone ratio, androstanediol, oxytocin and IGF-I were analyzed. Spatial ability showed a negative correlation with serum estradiol, estradiol/testosterone ratio, oxytocin levels and a positive association with androstanediol levels. Verbal fluency displayed a negative relationship with serum levels of testosterone, IGF-I and a positive with estradiol/testosterone ratio. Verbal memory displayed a positive correlation to androstanediol. Data suggest that not only absolute levels of sex hormones but also the balance between estrogen and testosterone and their metabolites may be important for cognitive function in women.

Reduced-Calorie Dietary Weight Loss, Exercise, and Sex Hormones in Postmenopausal Women: Randomized Controlled Trial

Estrogens and androgens are elevated in obesity and associated with increased postmenopausal breast cancer risk, but the effect of weight loss on these biomarkers is unknown. We evaluated the individual and combined effects of a reduced-calorie weight loss diet and exercise on serum sex hormones in overweight and obese postmenopausal women. We conducted a single-blind, 12-month, randomized controlled trial from 2005 to 2009. Participants (age 50 to 75 years; body mass index > 25.0 kg/m(2), exercising < 100 minutes/wk) were randomly assigned using a computer-generated sequence to (1) reduced-calorie weight loss diet ("diet"; n = 118), (2) moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise ("exercise"; n = 117), (3) combined reduced-calorie weight loss diet and moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise ("diet + exercise"; n = 117), or (4) control (n = 87). Outcomes were estrone concentration (primary) and estradiol, free estradiol, total testosterone, free testosterone, androstenedione, and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations (secondary). Mean age and body mass index were 58 years and 30.9 kg/m(2), respectively. Compared with controls, estrone decreased 9.6% (P = .001) with diet, 5.5% (P = .01) with exercise, and 11.1% (P < .001) with diet + exercise. Estradiol decreased 16.2% (P < .001) with diet, 4.9% (P = .10) with exercise, and 20.3% (P < .001) with diet + exercise. SHBG increased 22.4% (P < .001) with diet and 25.8% (P < .001) with diet + exercise. Free estradiol decreased 21.4% (P < .001) with diet and 26.0% (P < .001) with diet + exercise. Free testosterone decreased 10.0% (P < .001) with diet and 15.6% (P < .001) with diet + exercise. Greater weight loss produced stronger effects on estrogens and SHBG. Weight loss significantly lowered serum estrogens and free testosterone, supporting weight loss for risk reduction through lowering exposure to breast cancer biomarkers.

The Effect of Ovariectomy on Learning and Memory and Relationship to Changes in Brain Volume and Neuronal Density

ABSTRACTThe loss of sex hormones in postmenopausal women has been suggested to be involved in cognitive degenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. In the present study, ovariectomized (OVX) and control rats were tested for 4 months in a Morris water maze (MWM) task to track their memory status. Thereafter, postmortem frozen brain sections were analyzed to determine if changes in brain area volumes and neuronal density were related to changes in cognitive ability. A modified artificial-land-mark-based method was used to assure the fidelity of the three dimensions (3D) reconstructed structures. Volumetric areas of the hippocampus, cortex, caudate putamen (cpu), and cerebellum were estimated from the reconstructions, and neuron densities of CA1 and CA3 subregions of the hippocampus were measured in an adjacent second series of Nissl-stained sections. Compared to the control rats, OVX rats displayed memory impairments, beginning in the second month after the ovariectomy (p < .05). Assessments at the end of the study demonstrated that OVX (compared to control) rats displayed reduced brain volume in the hippocampus and neocortex and in the brain as a whole. In contrast, when compared to controls, the volumes of cpu and cerebellum of OVX rats increased slightly. CA3 neuron density of OVX (compared to controls) rats was significantly lower, but the CA1 neuron density was significantly higher. In conclusion, ovariectomy impaired spatial memory and led to morphological changes in cognitive centers of rat brain. The results demonstrate that the 3D reconstructed method is useful for the study of brain morphological abnormality in rats.

Cigarette Smoking and Endogenous Sex Hormones in Postmenopausal Women

Cigarette Smoking and Endogenous Sex Hormones in Postmenopausal Women

Estrogen treatment affects brain functioning after menopause

Sex hormones have powerful neuromodulatory effects on functional brain organization and cognitive functioning. This paper reviews findings from studies investigating the influence of sex hormones in postmenopausal women with and without hormone therapy (HT). Functional brain organization was investigated using different behavioural tasks in postmenopausal women using either estrogen therapy or combined estrogen plus gestagen therapy and age- and IQ-matched postmenopausal women not taking HT. The results revealed HT-related modulations in specific aspects of functional brain organization including functional cerebral asymmetries and interhemispheric interaction. In contrast to younger women during the menstrual cycle, however, it seems that HT, and especially estrogen therapy, after menopause affects intrahemispheric processing rather than interhemispheric interaction. This might be explained by a faster and more pronounced age-related decline in intrahemispheric relative to interhemispheric functioning, which might be associated with higher sensitivity to HT. Taken together, the findings suggest that the female brain retains its plasticity even after reproductive age and remains susceptible to the effects of sex hormones throughout the lifetime, which might help to discover new clinical approaches in the hormonal treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.