Sex Differences In Perception Research Articles

Is Reading Sexual Intention Truly Functional? The Impact of Perceiving a Partner’s Sexual Intention on Courtship Initiation Behaviors

The present research examined the presumed but not tested behavioral functions of sexual intent perception. Sex differences in the perception of a partner's sexual intention have been explained by its functions, from an evolutionary perspective, in males' and females' divergent mating goals. Our research directly explored the functional explanation in terms of behavioral impact by testing whether sex differences in sexual intent perception could lead to successful courtship behaviors. In Study 1, 411 college students reported their preferred courtship-initiating behaviors in hypothetical situations in which their own sexual motivation and their perceptions of a potential partner's sexual intention varied. The results showed that females' courtship behaviors were influenced only by their own sexual motivation whereas males' behaviors were influenced by both their own sexual motivation and their perception of a potential partner's sexual intent. Study 2 examined whether a participant's perception of a potential partner's sexual intention resulted in the participant selecting the specific courtship strategies that could eventually lead to successful mating opportunities. We compared the behavioral strategies preferred by courtship initiators (Study 1) to the reactions of courtship targets toward these same strategies (collected from 103 college students in Study 2) when the target's sexual intention and the initiator's perception of it matched. The results showed that only one condition-male initiators whose perception of the target's sexual intent corresponded with the target's actual intent-utilized effective courtship behaviors. The findings were consistent with the functional prediction and their theoretical implications for the evolutionary perspective were discussed.

A systematic literature review of 10 years of research on sex/gender and experimental pain perception – Part 1: Are there really differences between women and men?

The purpose of this systematic review was to summarize and critically appraise the results of 10years of human laboratory research on pain and sex/gender. An electronic search strategy was designed by a medical librarian and conducted in multiple databases. A total of 172 articles published between 1998 and 2008 were retrieved, analyzed, and synthesized. The first set of results (122 articles), which is presented in this paper, examined sex difference in the perception of laboratory-induced thermal, pressure, ischemic, muscle, electrical, chemical, and visceral pain in healthy subjects. This review suggests that females (F) and males (M) have comparable thresholds for cold and ischemic pain, while pressure pain thresholds are lower in F than M. There is strong evidence that F tolerate less thermal (heat, cold) and pressure pain than M but it is not the case for tolerance to ischemic pain, which is comparable in both sexes. The majority of the studies that measured pain intensity and unpleasantness showed no sex difference in many pain modalities. In summary, 10years of laboratory research have not been successful in producing a clear and consistent pattern of sex differences in human pain sensitivity, even with the use of deep, tonic, long-lasting stimuli, which are known to better mimic clinical pain. Whether laboratory studies in healthy subjects are the best paradigm to investigate sex differences in pain perception is open to question and should be discussed with a view to enhancing the clinical relevance of these experiments and developing new research avenues.

Sex differences in perceptions of benefits and costs of mate poaching

Mate poaching occurs when an individual is aware that the person with whom he or she has sexual relations is already in a nominally exclusive relationship with someone else. The current study extends the results of the only previous study ( Davies et al., 2007) to investigate the motivations of mate poachers by investigating a comprehensive list of benefits and costs exclusively associated with poaching. Ratings provided by 125 men and 90 women indicated hypothesized sex differences in the likelihood that benefits and costs would motivate them to attract an attached individual (i.e. to poach) versus an unattached individual (i.e. to avoid poaching). Additional results suggested that both sexes avoid poaching if equally attracted to the attached and unattached individuals. This led us to formulate the novel hypothesis that poaching lies between attracting unattached individuals and coercion in a hierarchy of conditional mating strategies.

Social–Sexual Interactions? Meta-Analyses of Sex Differences in Perceptions of Flirtatiousness, Seductiveness, and Promiscuousness

Scholars have assessed the degree to which heterosexual men and women make differential judgments of flirtatiousness, seductiveness, and promiscuousness during cross-sex interactions. Findings from extant research suggest that men decode verbal and nonverbal communication cues differently than do women, and this difference results in men's tendency to rate individuals more highly in levels of these social–sexual constructs than do women. This paper reports the results of three meta-analyses that provided estimates of the magnitude of the sex differences in perceptions of flirtatiousness, seductiveness, and promiscuousness and argues that these results are consistent with error management theory. Sex of target and mode of observation interacted to impact observed sex differences. Sex differences were strongest for female targets when research participants were observers of face-to-face interactions (average r=.32), whereas sex differences in evaluations of flirtatiousness, seductiveness, and promiscuousness were strongest for participants who were rating male targets in face-to-face interactions (average r=.36). The implications of these results are discussed.

Sex Differences in Perceptions of Infidelity: Men Often Assume the Worst

Given that the costs of underperceiving (i.e., failing to detect) a partner's sexual infidelity would have been greater for men than for women, we hypothesized that men may possess evolved psychological mechanisms designed to overperceive the likelihood of their partner's sexual infidelity. We found support for this hypothesis using two different response formats, a Likert-type scale (Study 1) and a visual analog scale (Study 2). In both studies, men were more likely than women to judge that their partners would commit sexual infidelity in the future. Discussion addresses additional design features of the infidelity detection system.

Sex differences in perceptions of pain coping strategy usage

Sex differences are generally found in the perception and experience of pain, with women reporting more intense and frequent pain than men. One reason why such differences may occur has been linked to socially-acquired gender-role expectations associated with pain. Although there is evidence that men and women report using different pain coping strategies, we do not know the extent to which gender-specific expectations are associated with pain-related coping. The current study sought to examine this in more detail by administering a standard pain coping measures on three separate occasions, but with different instructions. Hundred and twenty two participants (57 male, 65 female) were asked to complete the coping measure as themselves, then again as they would expect the typical man and the typical woman to complete it. Results indicated that there were no significant differences between men and women in their own self-reported usage of pain coping strategies. However, there was general evidence to suggest that there are differences in stereotypical views of how men and women are thought to cope with pain. Furthermore, sex differences were also found in how participants viewed their own coping behaviours in comparison to that of the typical man and typical woman. These results confirm that alongside pain, men and women hold different gender-specific expectations with respect to certain pain coping strategies. Future research is required to examine whether these different coping expectations influence an individuals own choice of strategy, and whether this in turn affects actual pain experiences.

Sex Differences in Perception: Exploring the Integration of Sensory Information with Respect to Vision and Proprioception

Inter- and intra-modal matching by right hand preferred Norwegian adults were tested using a matching task. The task required them to locate target pins visually, proprioceptively or in combination, while matching was always carried out without vision. When combined scores for both hands were analysed, the females showed superior performance in the intra-modal matching condition. For both groups, when the scores for the two hands were treated separately, superior performance was obtained in using the right hand to match under the visual condition. The only significant sex difference relative to hand preference was that the females matched the target more accurately with the right hand in the intra-modal matching condition. These findings are discussed relative to inter-hemispheric processing

Perceived Neighborhood Environments and Physical Activity in an Elderly Sample

Increasing evidence indicates the importance of environmental variables in explaining physical activity. This study evaluated sex differences in perception of home and neighborhood environmental support and assessed which neighborhood environmental variables were associated with reported physical activity of elderly people. A sample of 126 women (M age = 79.1 +/- 6.6 yr.) and 55 men (M age = 76.6 +/- 7.7 yr.) were healthy, community-dwelling individuals. A questionnaire about environmental variables was administered. Physical activity was assessed on the Baecke Questionnaire. Logistic regression analysis showed that Neighborhood Safety was related to total physical activity, activity in leisure time, and sport activities. Men were also likely to be more active in leisure time than women. Neighborhood Personal Safety was associated with physical activity of these elderly people, showing a potential influence of the environmental domain in physical activity.

Sex differences in acute energy intake regulation

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if energy intake compensation is more accurate in males compared to females matched for age, habitual physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and dietary cognitive restraint. Healthy, nonobese young men ( n=12) and women ( n=12) were provided with an ad libitum lunch meal on two occasions. Thirty minutes prior to the lunch meals, subjects were given either a yogurt preload (YP; 500 mL, 1988 kJ, men; 375 mL, 1507 kJ, women) or no preload (NP). Energy intake at the two lunch meals was measured. Visual analog scales were used to assess changes in hunger and fullness. Blood glucose concentrations were also determined. Energy intake compensation for the YP was significantly more accurate in the male compared to the female subjects (86.2±5.0 vs. 73.6±4.8% compensation). There were no sex differences in perceptions of hunger and satiety. In the pooled sample, hunger ratings were significantly higher in the NP condition, but there were no significant differences in fullness ratings between test meals. In the YP condition, glycemic response to the preload and the ad libitum meal was significantly higher in males compared to females. These results suggest that under acute test meal conditions, energy intake regulation is more accurate in males. Relative inability to regulate energy intake may predispose females to gain weight over time.

How sex differences in perceptions influence customer satisfaction: a study of theatre audiences

We explore the effects of sex-related, value-expressive and functional image perceptions on satisfaction through a study of audience members at two theatres. Results suggest that satisfaction is higher for men when they perceive an elevated level of functional service quality and for women when they perceive that the theatre possesses pro-social values. Satisfaction overlap exists when either men or women perceive market or artistic values. Existing literature has suggested that women begin elaboration of message cues at a lower threshold than men; however, it appears that a zone exists where both sexes elaborate on some image attributes, while women further elaborate on communal attributes and men focus on agentic attributes. Contrary to prevailing evidence in the services management literature, no direct link surfaced between perceived quality of the core service and customer satisfaction. Post hoc tests for mediation indicate that tangible quality of the core service is important to both men and women, driving their engagement in elaboration of image attributes, but it is not important enough to directly stimulate satisfaction when other factors of the consumption experience are taken into account in complex encounters.

Sex differences in perception of emotion intensity in dynamic and static facial expressions

Most research on the perception of emotional expressions is conducted using static faces as stimuli. However, facial displays of emotion are a highly dynamic phenomenon and a static photograph is its very unnatural representation. The goal of the present research was to assess the role of stimuli dynamics as well as subjects' sex in the perception of emotional expressions. In the experiment, subjects rated the intensity of expressions of anger and happiness presented as photographs (static stimuli) and animations (dynamic stimuli). The impact of both stimulus dynamics and emotion type on the perceived intensity was observed. The emotions on 'angry faces' were judged as more intense than on 'happy faces' and the intensity ratings were higher in the case of animation rather than photography. Moreover, gender differences in the rated intensity were found. For male subjects higher intensity ratings for dynamic than for static expressions were noted in the case of anger, whereas in the case of happiness, no differences were observed. For female subjects, however, differences for both anger and happiness were significant. The results suggest that the dynamic characteristic of facial display is an important factor in the perception of the intensity of emotional expressions. Its effect, however, depends on the subjects' sex and emotional valence.

Listening Styles: Sex Differences in Perceptions of Self and others

Do men and women differ in their listening styles or, perhaps, do projections of sex differences primarily reflect cultural stereotypes? Consistent with previous research the data at hand reveal a pattern of sex differences in listening style self-perceptions with women scoring themselves higher on the people listening style and men scoring themselves higher on the content listening style. Also, supporting expectations built from the dual-process theories of person perception, the findings suggest that perceptions of “peers” listening styles are anchored by gender stereotypes. However, inexplicable evidence of systematically biased response tendencies in reporting listening styles also emerged. The implications of these findings for future research and application are discussed.

Sex differences in perceptions of romantic acts in Portuguese adolescents.

The study was done to examine sex differences in the importance attributed to romantic acts by adolescents. On a 15-item Romantic Acts questionnaire of Neto participants rated the importance of each act. Four factors of Offerings, Physical Intimacy, Altruistic Behavior, and Sexual Behavior were found. The 108 girls judged physical intimacy as more important than the 79 boys.

Sex Differences in Self-Silencing

The construct of self-silencing was proposed to account for women's greater vulnerability to developing depression. This study of 1,117 students (795 women and 322 men) explored possible explanations for the empirical finding that men self-silence to the same or greater extent than women. Analysis showed that men reported more self-silencing than women. A factor analysis confirmed the subscale structure of the Silencing the Self Scale for women and men, with relatively few departures from the originally proposed subscales. Depression and self-silencing scores were correlated positively for both men and women. The results of two multiple regressions, performed separately for men and women, showed that depressive symptomatology accounted for a significant percentage of the variance in self-silencing but that social desirability did not account for a significant increment in the variance accounted for in silencing the self. The scores on the Care as Self-sacrifice and the Divided Self subscales were intercorrelated for women, but not for men, indicating that there may be a sex difference in perception of self-silencing behavior.

THE DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: PREFERENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF YOUNG ADULTS 592

The physical activity perceptions and preferences of targeted subpopulations need to be described in a parsimonious way to advance physical activity promotion theory and interventions. The aim of this study was to examine whether the physical activity preferences and perceptions of young adults can be represented by dimensional spaces. Young adults (malesn=59, females n=54, age M=20.20 yrs.) judged the dissimilarity of 14 physical activities in a paired-comparison format and then ranked the activities according to preference. This procedure was replicated in a second sample with a slightly different set of 14 activities(males, n=27; females, n = 19). Sample two young adults also rated each activity on 12 physical activity determinant scales. We examined the structure of preference rankings using preference mapping techniques (PRINCALS algorithm) and the structure of dissimilarity judgments using weighted multidimensional scaling techniques (ALSCAL). For sample one, a four-dimensional space satisfactorily represented physical activity preferences (R2 =.63) and a three-dimensional interval space satisfactorily represented dissimilarity judgments (R2=.30). The results were replicated with sample two. Using property fitting techniques, we regressed the determinant ratings onto the preference and perceptual spaces. Competitive-noncompetitive, healthy-unhealthy, convenient-inconvenient, and individual-group were determinants that related to the dimensions underlying young adults' preferences for physical activity. An analysis of individual differences revealed that males preferred competitive group activities (e.g., touch football, basketball) and females preferred noncompetitive activities (e.g., aerobic dance). Activity perceptions varied along competitive-noncompetitive, high-low intensity, and individual-group dimensions. There were no sex differences in perceptions. We conclude that the physical activity perceptions and preferences of young adults can be represented by parsimonious dimensional spaces.

The effects of personal and situational factors on university administrators' responses to sexual harassment

The present study was designed to assess how managerial personnel respond to various sexual harassment scenarios. Much of the sexual harassment research has utilized samples other than managerial personnel. Therefore, this study attempts to determine whether the findings in the literature generalize to a managerial sample. University administrators' responses to sexual harassment scenarios were assessed, with type of harassment (economic injury, hostile environment, or no harassment) and offender's status (supervisor or co-worker) being varied. Analyses revealed a lack of predicted sex differences in perceptions and definitions of sexual harassment and unanticipated sex differences in complaint handling and belief in sexual harassment myths. There were no offender status effects. The significant type of harassment effects was present for complaint handling, familiarity, and situation perceptions. In all cases, the respondents who received the “no harassment” scenario differed in their responses from the participants who had received one of the two harassment scenarios.

Sex Differences in Self-Report of Physical Health by Injection Drug Users

Through heterosexual contact, injection drug users (IDUs) put others at risk of contracting Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) disease. Self-report of health was compared among IDUs in Laredo, Texas, San Diego, California, and San Juan, Puerto Rico, and in a subsample which contained HIV positive subjects from these cities. These data were compared with similar National Opinion Research Center data and indicated that IDUs do not report their health to be different from that of the general public. Previous research has reported sex differences in morbidity and mortality in the non-IDU population. This study found sex differences in perception of health by IDUs in Laredo and San Diego.

Sex differences in emotional reactions to discovered deception

This study explores sex differences in perceptions of discovered deception, and the subsequent emotional reactions that are experienced by relational partners. Drawing upon research examining deception, relational communication, and gender, several hypotheses were developed and tested in a sample of 190 respondents who had recently discovered the lie of a friend or romantic partner. The data were consistent with the hypotheses. Women were more likely than men to rate lying as an unacceptable form of behavior within both friendship and romantic relationships. In addition, women rated the act of lying (regardless of what was lied about) as more significant, and reported more negative emotional reactions upon discovering deception than did men. Generalized communicative suspicion functioned to enhance the intensity of emotional reactions for women, but not for men. Implications of the current results for the study of deception are discussed.

Age and Sex Differences in Perceptions of Networks of Personal Relationships

Age and Sex Differences in Perceptions of Networks of Personal Relationships

Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of personal relationships.

In this study, 549 youths in the fourth grade, seventh grade, tenth grade, and college completed Network of Relationship Inventories assessing their perceptions of their relationships with significant others. The findings were largely consistent with 7 propositions derived from major theories of the developmental courses of personal relationships. In particular, mothers and fathers were seen as the most frequent providers of support in the fourth grade. Same-sex friends were perceived to be as supportive as parents in the seventh grade, and were the most frequent providers of support in the tenth grade. Romantic partners moved up in rank with age until college, where they, along with friends and mothers, received the highest ratings for support. Age differences were also observed in perceptions of relationships with grandparents, teachers, and siblings. Finally, age differences in perceived conflict, punishment, and relative power suggested that there was a peak in tension in parent-child relationships in early and middle adolescence. Discussion centers around the role various relationships are perceived as playing at different points in development.