Sex Differences In Competition Research Articles

Sex Differences in Competitiveness in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs).

Sex differences in the use of competitive tactics have been well established. Although many factors may contribute to these sex differences, according to social role theory (SRT), stereotypes and expectations about men's and women's typical social roles are crucial. We addressed the potential impact of social roles by studying massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), a setting where individuals represent themselves with avatars and thus enjoy the opportunity to compete without regard to the typical expectations and behaviors associated with men's and women's roles. We surveyed players via MTurk (63 women, 191 men) and Reddit (166 women, 1,326 men) regarding their frequency of engaging in five competitive behaviors and the sex and role of their primary avatar. As expected, there were reliable sex differences in competitiveness: men were more likely than women to engage in player-versus-player duels (MTurk d = 0.19; Reddit d = 0.51), do solo runs of difficult content (0.30, 0.35), and work to acquire expensive items (0.32, 0.19); women were more likely than men to seek in-game awards (-0.38, -0.36) and spend real-world money on expensive microtransactions (-0.16, -0.27). Contrary to SRT, these sex differences in forms of competitive behavior were generally unrelated to players' chosen avatar sex or avatar role. These results instead indicate that sex differences in competitiveness largely reflect evolved predispositions.

Covert vs. Overt: Toward a More Nuanced Understanding of Sex Differences in Competition.

Covert vs. Overt: Toward a More Nuanced Understanding of Sex Differences in Competition.

Sexually Selected Sex Differences in Competitiveness Explain Sex Differences in Changes in Drinking Game Participation

Drinking games are a risk factor for behavioral and health problems among university students. Previous cross-sectional research by Hone, Carter, and McCullough (2013) replicated well-established sex differences in drinking game behaviors (i.e., that men are more active drinking game participants than are women) and university drinking problems more generally. Hone et al. (2013) also found that these male-specific behavioral patterns are attributable in part to the fact that men's generally unrestricted sexual strategies, plus their social competitiveness, motivate them to participate in drinking games to display their fortitude and compete with same-sex rivals. Here, the authors conducted a study to evaluate with greater causal rigor whether sex differences in sexual restrictedness and social competitiveness-and sex differences in motivations for participating in drinking games in particular-are partially responsible for the sex differences in university students' drinking game behaviors and drinking problems. Sex differences in changes in frequency of drinking game participation were partially mediated by competitive motivations for participating in drinking games and by the effects of social competitiveness on competitive drinking game motivation. These findings lend additional support to the proposition that participation in drinking games is motivated in part by their suitability as a venue for sexual competition in university students' day-to-day lives.

Sex Differences in Competitiveness: Hunter-Gatherer Women and Girls Compete Less in Gender-Neutral and Male-Centric Tasks

Despite numerous attempts to increase workplace equality, the near universal gender wage gap and underrepresentation of women in high status jobs persists in societies around the world. This persistence has led some researchers to speculate that psychological sex differences may be partly to blame. In particular, economists have begun to focus on sex differences in competitiveness as a possible cause. Here we test whether sex differences in competitiveness exist in a relatively isolated and evolutionarily relevant population of hunter-gatherers in Tanzania. In study 1 we examine sex differences in willingness to compete in a gender-neutral task in Hadza adults and children (N = 191). We find that when choosing between an individualistic payment scheme and a competitive payment scheme, boys and men are significantly more likely to compete than girls and women. We find no evidence that this sex difference varies with age. In study 2 (N = 88 and N = 70) we use both a female-centric and a male-centric task to explore sex differences in competitiveness in adults. While we find no sex difference in willingness to compete in the female-centric task, we find that men are more likely to compete in the male-centric task. While further work is needed, this study lends some support to the idea of a sex difference in willingness to compete among hunter-gatherers, but it also highlights the importance of the task type. The observation that a sizable proportion of male Hadza choose to compete in each of the tasks is discussed in light of the fact that hunter-gatherers are largely egalitarian and non-hierarchical.

Domain specificity of sex differences in competition

There has been much recent literature about sex differences in competition, mostly noting that women are innately less competitive than men (Croson and Gneezy, 2009). This article examines the hypothesis that sex differences in propensity to compete are domain specific. We conducted a 2 (sex)×4 (domain) experiment with 434 participants examining competition decisions, familiarity with the domain, and performance. We find no overall sex differences in rates of competition when collapsing across all four domains, but do find sex differences in rates of competition for individual domains. Additionally we examined the importance of winning at competition on self-esteem using the Contingencies of Self-Worth, Competition subscale (Crocker et al., 2003) and find that the subscale fully mediates the effect of sex on the strength of competitive pay preferences.

Consequences of sex-specific growth on sibling competition in black-headed gulls: a sexually-size dimorphic species with scramble competition

Biased mortality of the larger sex during the early developmental period has been reported for a number of size-dimorphic bird species. This can partly be explained by the fact that growing to larger size renders the larger sex more vulnerable to food shortage. However, since sibling rivalry is often size-dependent, chicks of the larger sex should have a competitive advantage. This raises the question as to why the larger sex does not always benefit from its size in sibling competition. We studied sibling competition in the black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus), a sexually-size dimorphic species with male-biased mortality. We manipulated the natural brood sex ratio and placed one male chick in direct competition with one female chick while concurrently controlling for differences in age, size and laying order. Male chicks outgrew their female siblings by 15% in asymptotic body mass and did not suffer from enhanced mortality. Female chicks tended to be more alert when the parents returned to the nest and were more persistent in gull-typical begging displays. Females were more likely to get the first food item, but they did not get more food, possibly due to a size-mediated dominance over the non-monopolizable regurgitated food. Thus, it is unlikely that sex differences in competitiveness significantly contribute to male-biased mortality in black-headed gulls. The previously reported male-biased mortality is more likely due to a disadvantage of a higher food demand and a higher sensitivity towards low egg quality, as has been shown in previous studies.

Women, careers, and work-life preferences

ABSTRACT There are no sex differences in cognitive ability but enduring sex differences in competitiveness, life goals, the relative emphasis on agency versus connection. Policy-makers’ and feminist emphasis on equal opportunities and family-friendly policies assumes that sex discrimination is the primary source of sex differentials in labour market outcomes—notably the pay gap between men and women. However, some careers and occupations cannot be domesticated—examples are given—and this also poses limits to social engineering. Recent research shows that high levels of female employment and family-friendly policies reduce gender equality in the workforce and produce the glass ceiling. Preference theory is the only theory that can explain these new trends, the continuing pay gap and occupational segregation. Preference theory implies that there are at least three types of career rather than one. However, the differences between men and women's career goals are smaller than sometimes thought.

More Males Run Relatively Fast in U.S. Road Races: Further Evidence of a Sex Difference in Competitiveness

Deaner (2006) recently showed that among elite U.S. runners, two to four times as many males as females run fast relative to sex-specific world-class standards. Previous questionnaire studies of non-elite runners suggest this phenomenon may reflect a sex difference in motivation to train competitively. If this hypothesis is correct, then the sex difference in performance depth should also hold in non-elite running populations. Here I tested this prediction by analyzing the finishing times at 20 of the largest 5000 m road races and 20 of the largest marathons held in the U.S. in 2003. For both types of races, overall population distributions of relative performance were similar in males and females. However, at the fastest relative performance levels, males were over represented by two to four times. This difference could not be explained by the presence of professional runners or as an artifact of biased world-class standards. This result shows that the sex difference in performance depth occurs generally and thus supports the hypothesis that sex differences in competitiveness partly reflect evolved predispositions.

More males run fast: A stable sex difference in competitiveness in U.S. distance runners

Sex differences in competitiveness are well established, but it is unknown if they originate from sociocultural conditions or evolved predispositions. Testing these hypotheses requires a quantifiable sex difference in competitiveness and the application of a powerful sociocultural manipulation to eliminate it. Study 1 reviews previous work showing that more male distance runners are motivated by competition and maintain large training volumes, suggesting that more males should run fast relative to sex-specific world-class standards. I then use two independent statistical approaches to demonstrate that, in matched populations of male and female U.S. runners, two to four times as many males as females ran relatively fast in 2003. Study 2 investigates whether the growth in opportunities and incentives for female athletes in the past 30 years is eliminating this sex difference. I first show that there was a marked increase in the number of fast female runners in the 1970s and early 1980s, a period during which female participation increased dramatically. However, I found no indication of an absolute or relative increase in the number of fast female distance runners since the mid-1980s. These findings therefore support the hypothesis that sex differences in competitiveness partly reflect evolved predispositions.

Greater Discomfort as a Proximate Cause of Sex Differences in Competition

The research was designed to examine whether females exhibit greater discomfort than males in competitive contexts, which could account for females' greater avoidance of direct competition. In Study 1, 40 groups of 4 same-sex children from kindergarten or Grade 4 were asked to chose one leader for their groups. Although no sex differences were found in level of participation or length of negotiations during the process of leadership selection, females were found to exhibit significantly more discomfort than males. In Study 2, a new method was employed in which kindergarten and Grade 4 same-sex dyads competed by playing identical games. No sex differences were found in level of discomfort while the children played the games and a barrier prevented the children from communicating. After the games were over and the barrier removed, however, females displayed higher levels of discomfort than males both while waiting for the outcome of the competition and after the winner had been announced. Together, these studies provide consistent evidence that females exhibit higher levels of discomfort than males when competing directly with same-sex peers. One plausible proximate reason for sex differences in engagement in direct competition is females' more negative emotional response.

Cooperative Reproduction in Ituri Forest Hunter-Gatherers: Who Cares for Efe Infants?

Cooperative Reproduction in Ituri Forest Hunter-Gatherers: Who Cares for Efe Infants?

Dichotomous Male Reproductive Strategies in a Polygynous Human Society: Mating versus Parental Effort

Apres avoir presente les principales theories sur la reproduction masculine dans le cadre des societes traditionnelles polygeniques et sur les implications de l'investissement parental dans les strategies d'accouplement, les AA. exposent les resultats d'une etude statistique relative a la fertilite masculine parmi les pionniers Mormons de l'Etat de l'Utah (Etats-Unis) au cours du XIX e siecle. L'objectif est de montrer quelles sont les relations entre l'etat de sante des hommes, leur choix matrimonial, la repartition des ressources et les strategies de reproduction chez les hommes.

Sexual-selection accounts of human characteristics: Just So Stories or scientific hypotheses?

AbstractWe evaluate three of Geary's claims, finding that (1) there is little evidence for sex differences in object- vs. person-orientation; (2) sex differences in competition, even if biologically caused, lead to sex differences in mathematics only given a certain style of teaching; and (3) sex differences in mental rotation, though real, are not well explained in a sociobiological framework or by the proximate biological variables assumed by Geary.

A Review of Reproductive Rates in Sticklebacks in Relation To Parental Expenditure and Operational Sex Ratios

1. The expenditures of time and energy on parental activities of female and male threespine sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus L., are reviewed in the context of sex differences in competition for and choice of mates. 2. The female's parental contribution is mainly cytoplasmic in the form of provisioned eggs. In energy units each clutch spawned represents about 200% of the daily maintenance ration of a sexually mature female. Each egg in a clutch represents about 2% of that ration. The 'time out', during which the female is sexually unreceptive between spawnings, varies from about 3 to 15 days, and is inversely correlated with the rate of food consumption. 3. The male's parental contribution is primarily behavioural. The daily energy expenditure of a parental male is equivalent to a daily ration of about 6% of the male's body weight, a value not dissimilar to that of a reproductively active female. The pattern of 'time-outs' of males differs from that of females, with the periods of sexual receptivity and unreceptivity both longer. 4. A crude simulation model of the effect of sex differences in the pattern and length of 'time outs' suggested that the operational sex ratio (OSR) would usually be male-biased favouring inter-male competition for mates and mate choice by females. 5. However, both environmental factors such as food availability, and demographic factors such as sex differences in mortality rates, together with the sex differences in 'time out' could cause the OSR to vary within breeding seasons, between breeding seasons and between populations. This leads to the prediction that there will be corresponding variations in the intensities of male-male and female-female competition for mates and hence in the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Hunting Ability and Reproductive Success Among Male Ache Foragers: Preliminary Results

Hunting Ability and Reproductive Success Among Male Ache Foragers: Preliminary Results