Sex Differences In Cognition Research Articles

Sex-based differences in neurocognitive functioning in HIV-infected young adults

Sex differences in cognition of HIV positive (HIV) patients are controversial. We aimed to investigate the relationship between cognition, HIV status, and sex, in a highly homogenous cohort of young Romanians parenterally infected during early childhood. In total, 250 HIV participants were compared with age-matched HIV negative (HIV) controls (n = 72) in a cross-sectional study. After standardized neurocognitive, psychological testing and medical evaluation, linear regression was used to assess the effect of sex and HIV on neurocognitive outcomes. Study participants were on average 23 years old with balanced sex distribution (% women = 52% vs. 43%). HIV were more educated (12.7 vs. 11.6 years, P = 0.002).HIV status was associated with a lower global performance (β = -0.22, P < 0.001), after controlling for age and education. HIV women had better previous and current HIV-associated markers. The effect of HIV on global cognition did not differ between sexes in most cognitive domains (β = 0.07, P = 0.14). An interaction between sex, HIV status, and cognitive functioning was found in the psychomotor domain. HIV women had worse motor skills than HIV women (β = -0.32, P < 0.001) suggesting a specific effect of HIV on motor functioning in women only. Moreover, current CD4 less than 200 cells/μl (P = 0.013) and longer time lived with CD4 less than 200 cells/μl (P = 0.023) were negatively correlated with the motor scaled score in women (β = -0.22, P = 0.034). Despite less advanced disease in women, long-term HIV infection has an equally detrimental effect on cognitive performances of both sexes, in all cognitive domains, except the psychomotor domain where women are preferentially affected.

Functional connectivity predicts gender: Evidence for gender differences in resting brain connectivity.

Prevalence of certain forms of psychopathology, such as autism and depression, differs between genders and understanding gender differences of the neurotypical brain may provide insights into risk and protective factors. In recent research, resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rfMRI) is widely used to map the inherent functional networks of the brain. Although previous studies have reported gender differences in rfMRI, the robustness of gender differences is not well characterized. In this study, we use a large data set to test whether rfMRI functional connectivity (FC) can be used to predict gender and identify FC features that are most predictive of gender. We utilized rfMRI data from 820 healthy controls from the Human Connectome Project. By applying a predefined functional template and partial least squares regression modeling, we achieved a gender prediction accuracy of 87% when multi-run rfMRI was used. Permutation tests confirmed that gender prediction was reliable ( p<.001). Effects of motion, age, handedness, blood pressure, weight, and brain volume on gender prediction are discussed. Further, we found that FC features within the default mode (DMN), fronto-parietal and sensorimotor networks contributed most to gender prediction. In the DMN, right fusiform gyrus and right ventromedial prefrontal cortex were important contributors. The above regions have been previously implicated in aspects of social functioning and this suggests potential gender differences in social cognition mediated by the DMN. Our findings demonstrate that gender can be reliably predicted using rfMRI data and highlight the importance of controlling for gender in brain imaging studies.

Gender Differences in Social Cognition: A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study of Recently Diagnosed Patients with Schizophrenia and Healthy Subjects.

This study had 2 objectives: First, to explore the gender-related differences in emotional processing (EP) and theory of mind-both cognitive (CToM) and affective (AToM)-in patients with schizophrenia and in a control group of healthy subjects; and, second, to examine, from a gender perspective, the possible association between EP and CToM in the AToM performance. Forty patients with schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder were recruited and matched by gender, age and years of education with 40 healthy subjects. EP was measured by the pictures of facial affect (POFA) test. CToM was measured using first- and second-order false-belief (FB) stories. AToM was measured by the reading the mind in the eyes test (RMET). Group and gender differences in CToM were analysed using the X2 test, whereas EP and AToM were analysed using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U Test and a general linear model. Results were adjusted by intelligence quotient and negative symptomatology. Patients with schizophrenia underperformed against healthy subjects in the POFA test, second-order FB, and RMET, but not in first-order FB. No significant gender differences were found. However, there was a trend showing that females outperformed males in the POFA ( P = 0.056). Group ( P < 0.001), POFA ( P < 0.001) and second-order FB ( P = 0.022) were the best factors predicting RMET performance (adjusted R2 = 0.584). Our results suggest that the illness is the main factor related to the deficit in social cognition, except for the basic aspects of the CToM that were unimpaired in most patients. Nevertheless, the influence of female gender in EP should not be neglected in any group. Finally, the hierarchal interaction between these domains is discussed.

Early contributions to infants' mental rotation abilities.

Some cognitive abilities exhibit reliable gender differences, with females outperforming males in specific aspects of verbal ability, and males showing an advantage on certain spatial tasks. Among these cognitive gender differences, differences in mental rotation are the most robust, and appear to be present even in infants. A large body of animal research suggests that gonadal hormones, particularly testosterone, during early development could contribute to this gender difference in mental rotation. Also, substantial evidence supports an influence of socialization on mental rotation performance. The present study investigated the relationship of two types of factors, early postnatal testosterone exposure and parental attitudes about gender, to mental rotation performance in 61 healthy infants (29 males, 32 females). We measured salivary testosterone at two time points: 1-2.5 months of age and 5-6 months of age. Infants' mental rotation performance and parents' attitudes about gender were assessed at 5-6 months of age. As predicted, testosterone concentrations were significantly higher in boys than girls in early infancy (d = 0.54), and boys performed significantly better than girls on mental rotation (d = 0.64). A significant positive correlation between testosterone at age 1-2.5 months and mental rotation was found only in boys (r = 0.50, p = .01). A significant negative correlation between parents' gender-stereotypical attitudes and mental rotation performance was found only in girls (r = -.57, p = .002). These findings suggest that the early postnatal testosterone surge (also known as "mini-puberty") may have organizational influences on mental rotation performance in boys, and that parents may influence their daughters' mental rotation abilities beginning very early in life.

An examination of sex differences in neurocognition and social cognition in first-episode psychosis

Due to the dearth and conflicting findings of previous research, it is unclear whether males and females with first-episode psychosis (FEP) differ in their neurocognitive and social cognitive abilities. The aims of the current study were to investigate whether: (i) there are sex differences in neurocognition and social cognition among young people with FEP; and (ii) they resemble those observed in age-matched healthy controls. The current study involved secondary analysis of data from a previous study in which a large neurocognitive and social cognitive battery was administered to 146 individuals with FEP and 46 healthy controls aged 15–25 years. Seven two-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variances revealed that FEP participants were impaired relative to controls on all cognitive domains. Only one main effect of sex was found with males, regardless of group, outperforming females on verbal comprehension. A significant interaction effect was found for information processing speed with FEP females outperforming FEP males on the Symbol Digit Modalities Test; however, post-hoc analysis of the mean difference was not significant. Despite few sex differences, the current study highlights that cognitive impairment is a key feature of FEP that should be a treatment target in early intervention.

Influence of Venus and Mars in the cognitive sky of schizophrenia. Results from the first-step national FACE-SZ cohort

ObjectivesSex differences can yield important clues regarding illness pathophysiology and its treatment. Schizophrenia (SZ) has a lower incidence rate, and a better prognosis, in women versus men. The present study investigated the cognitive profiles of both sexes in a large multi-centre sample of community-dwelling SZ patients. Method544 community-dwelling stable SZ subjects (141 women and 403 men; mean age 34.5±12.1 and 31.6±8.7years, respectively) were tested with a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests. ResultsAlthough community-dwelling SZ men had more risk factors for impaired cognition (including first-generation antipsychotics administration and comorbid addictive disorders), women had lower scores on a wide range of cognitive functions, including current and premorbid intellectual functioning, working memory, semantic memory, non-verbal abstract thinking and aspects of visual exploration. However, women scored higher in tests of processing speed and verbal learning, as well as having a lower verbal learning bias. No sex difference were evident for visuospatial learning abilities, cued verbal recall, sustained attention and tests of executive functions, including cognitive flexibility, verbal abstract thinking, verbal fluency and planning abilities. ConclusionSex differences are evident in the cognitive profiles of SZ patients. The impact on daily functioning and prognosis, as well as longitudinal trajectory, should be further investigated in the FACE-SZ follow-up study. Sex differences in cognition have implications for precision-medicine determined therapeutic strategies. LimitsGiven the restricted age range of the sample, future research will have to determine cognitive profiles across gender in late onset SZ.

Global-local processing relates to spatial and verbal processing: implications for sex differences in cognition

Sex differences have been reported for a variety of cognitive tasks and related to the use of different cognitive processing styles in men and women. It was recently argued that these processing styles share some characteristics across tasks, i.e. male approaches are oriented towards holistic stimulus aspects and female approaches are oriented towards stimulus details. In that respect, sex-dependent cognitive processing styles share similarities with attentional global-local processing. A direct relationship between cognitive processing and global-local processing has however not been previously established. In the present study, 49 men and 44 women completed a Navon paradigm and a Kimchi Palmer task as well as a navigation task and a verbal fluency task with the goal to relate the global advantage (GA) effect as a measure of global processing to holistic processing styles in both tasks. Indeed participants with larger GA effects displayed more holistic processing during spatial navigation and phonemic fluency. However, the relationship to cognitive processing styles was modulated by the specific condition of the Navon paradigm, as well as the sex of participants. Thus, different types of global-local processing play different roles for cognitive processing in men and women.

ApoE rs429358 and rs7412 Polymorphism and Gender Differences of Serum Lipid Profile and Cognition in Aging Chinese Population.

ApoE gene polymorphism has been reportedly associated with serum lipids and cognition. However, very few studies have explored the combined effects of ApoE gene polymorphism and gender on serum lipid profile with subsequent impacts on cognition in Chinese population. A total of 1,000 Chinese community dwellers aged 55 years and above were recruited in this cross-sectional study. Demographic information of the participants was collected using well designed self-administered questionnaires. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) test was employed to evaluate the cognitive status of the participants. Semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used to obtain the dietary intake information. Fasting venous blood samples were taken for ApoE genotyping and serum lipid measurements. Significant gender differences in cognition, serum lipid profile and dietary fat-rich foods consumption were observed (p < 0.05). Cognition of the subjects was found to be associated with ApoE genotypes (p < 0.05). ApoE rs429358 and rs7412 variants demonstrated a significant effect on cognitive performance in the male subjects; especially within the attention and language cognitive domains as well as the total MoCA score (p < 0.05), respectively. Serum lipid profile and cognition of Chinese adults are significantly linked with gender and ApoE genetic polymorphism. The ApoE variant rs429358 is found to be notably associated with cognition in aging male Chinese population.

A large-scale study on the effects of sex on gray matter asymmetry.

Research on sex-related brain asymmetries has not yielded consistent results. Despite its importance to further understanding of normal brain development and mental disorders, the field remains relatively unexplored. Here we employ a recently developed asymmetry measure, based on the Dice coefficient, to detect sex-related gray matter asymmetries in a sample of 457 healthy participants (266 men and 191 women) obtained from 5 independent databases. Results show that women's brains are more globally symmetric than men's (p<0.001). Although the new measure accounts for asymmetries distributed all over the brain, several specific structures were identified as systematically more symmetric in women, such as the thalamus and the cerebellum, among other structures, some of which are typically involved in language production. These sex-related asymmetry differences may be defined at the neurodevelopmental stage and could be associated with functional and cognitive sex differences, as well as with proneness to develop a mental disorder.

As You Sow, So Shall You Reap: Gender-Role Attitudes and Late-Life Cognition

Some studies have found that women outperform men in episodic memory after midlife. But is this finding universal, and what are the reasons? Gender differences in cognition are the result of biopsychosocial interactions throughout the life course. Social-cognitive theory of gender development posits that gender roles may play an important mediating role in these interactions. We analyzed country differences in the gender differential in cognition after midlife using data from individuals age 50 and above (N = 226,661) from 27 countries. As expected, older women performed relatively better in countries characterized by more equal gender-role attitudes. This result was robust to cohort differences as well as reverse causality. The effect was partially mediated by education and labor-force participation. Cognition in later life thus cannot be fully understood without reference to the opportunity structures that sociocultural environments do (or do not) provide. Global population aging raises the importance of understanding that gender roles affect old-age cognition and productivity.

Face Processing Measures of Social Cognition: A Dimensional Approach to Developmental Psychopathology

BackgroundSocial cognition impairments in neurodevelopmental disorders impact functioning. Face processing is the most extensively studied aspect of social cognition, commonly indexing this construct in neuropsychiatric disorders compared with typically developing youths. Applying social cognition measures as a Research Domain Criteria concept in the clinical arena requires establishing cutoffs for intervention and identifying vulnerability for psychopathology across disorders. This can be accomplished by comparing extreme performers across multiple clinical symptom features. MethodsThe Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort (N = 9498), a community sample of youths (8–21 years old), was assessed with a structured interview (Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia). The Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery was administered measuring accuracy and response time on Executive, Episodic Memory, Complex Cognition, and Social Cognition domains. We parsed participants by performance on social cognition into tertiles and examined their neurocognitive and clinical profiles. ResultsThe top social cognition group outperformed the bottom group in face memory and complex reasoning. Concerning symptoms, the top performing group did not differ from the middle group, but the bottom performing group had higher externalizing and psychosis symptoms. There were sex differences in social cognition and symptom profiles but no sex × performance or sex × diagnosis × domain interactions. ConclusionsSocial cognition is supported by strong face memory and complex reasoning skills. Poor performance portends more severe externalizing and psychosis symptoms. That average performance is sufficient for normative symptomatology suggests that interventions aimed at ameliorating social cognition deficits, as measured here, could be effective in normalizing level of symptoms.

Gender differences in cognitive Theory of Mind revealed by transcranial direct current stimulation on medial prefrontal cortex

Gender differences in social cognition are a long discussed issue, in particular those concerning Theory of Mind (ToM), i.e., the ability to explain and predict other people’s mental states. The aim of this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was to test the hypothesis that anodal tDCS over the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) selectively enhances cognitive ToM performance in females. In the first experiment we administered to sixteen females and sixteen males a cognitive ToM task during anodal or placebo tDCS over the mPFC. In the second experiment further sixteen females completed the task receiving anodal or placebo tDCS over the vertex. The results showed that anodal tDCS over the mPFC enhances ToM in females but not in males, an effect indicated by enhanced ToM in females that received anodal tDCS over the mPFC compared with females that received tDCS over the vertex. These findings are relevant for three reasons. First, we found evidence of gender-related differences in cognitive ToM, extending previous findings concerning affective ToM. Second, these differences emerge with anodal stimulation of the mPFC, confirming the crucial role of this area in cognitive ToM. Third, we show that taking into account gender-related differences is mandatory for the investigation of ToM.

Beyond the controversy: Integration of biological and cultural views on cognitive sex differences

Beyond the controversy: Integration of biological and cultural views on cognitive sex differences

Cognitive Sex Differences: Evolution and History

We add results from studies in Germany and Brazil supporting Lynn’s theory on cognitive sex differences and their development. We show that there are associations between hormonal transitions during adolescence, especially in women, and increasing sex differences in cognitive abilities, particularly spatial ability, during adolescence. We suggest that such maturation-related changes make sense from an evolutionary perspective, as cognitive and ecological specializations of the sexes, with the benefit of increasing group fitness due to differentiation of social gender roles. However, historical and cultural change has reduced male-favoring gender differences in education and in many cases reversed them. Together with changes in the job market this has modified formerly stable sex differences.

Heterosexuality and gender differences in both social cognition and social behavior

Heterosexuality and gender differences in both social cognition and social behavior

Cognitive Control Processes Underpin Sex differences in Self-report Measures of Empathy

Cognitive Control Processes Underpin Sex differences in Self-report Measures of Empathy

Serum SHBG Levels are not Associated with Longitudinal Cognitive Decline in Mild Cognitive Impairment.

Prior studies have noted gender differences in cognition, imaging, and pathological markers in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) subjects. Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), a major controlling factor in the proportion of bioavailable versus bound testosterone and estrogen, has been proposed to contribute to links between hormones and dementia, but has not yet been investigated fully in a prospective biomarker trial. This study examined whether, among subjects with MCI, SHBG levels predict future rate of cognitive decline. We examine the effect of gender on cognitive decline and factors modulating potential gender differences in 378 MCI subjects (134 females, 244 males) in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative-1 (ADNI-1), followed for up to 8 years (mean ± SE, 4.0 ± 0.1 years). Cognition was assessed using the ADAS-cog-11. Multivariate models examined the effect of gender covarying for age, ApoE4, baseline cognition, years of education, and SHBG levels. MCI women declined significantly faster than men in cognition over the follow up period. Baseline SHBG levels differed significantly between men and women (p < 0.0001), and by age in men, but not by ApoE4 status. In the multivariate models, SHBG levels were not a significant predictor of cognitive decline in men or women but ApoE4 status, baseline cognition, years of education, and female gender were. SHBG levels did not influence the rate of cognitive decline in MCI. Further studies to confirm these findings and uncover other potential mechanisms of gender differences in the risk for AD may be warranted.

Sex differences in spatial abilities and cognitive flexibility in the guppy

When males and females differ in their spatial ecology, selection is expected to promote sex differences in spatial abilities. Although this prediction applies to many species, few studies have looked at sex differences in spatial abilities outside mammals. Here, we addressed this hypothesis in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata, a polygynous fish in which males disperse more than females and inhabit more spatially complex environments. We compared the performance of male and female guppies in two spatial tasks to test whether males have been selected for enhanced spatial abilities. In a detour task (experiment 1), the two sexes showed similar ability to navigate around an obstacle to reach a target. However, males were more persistent in trying to pass through the transparent obstacle, an effect that is likely to be related to sex differences in cognitive flexibility rather than to spatial abilities. In the second experiment, with a more complex maze in which guppies had to choose between alternative routes to reach the target, males learned the task after only one presentation, whereas females did not show any evidence of learning after five trials. The direction of these differences is the same as that observed in most polygynous species investigated, suggesting a common pattern of cognitive sex differences across vertebrates.

No effect of testosterone on behavior in aged Wistar rats.

In men, aging is accompanied by a gradual decline in androgen secretion. Studies suggest beneficial effects of endogenous and exogenous testosterone on affective behavior and cognitive functions. The aim of this study was to describe behavioral and cognitive sex differences and to analyze the effects of long-term androgen deficiency in aged male rats. Thirty-months old rats divided into three groups (males, females and males gonadectomized as young adults) underwent a battery of behavioral tests assessing locomotor activity, anxiety, memory, anhedonia, sociability and depression-like behavior. No major effect of gonadectomy was found in any of the analyzed behavioral measures in male rats. The only consistent sex difference was confirmed in depression-like behavior with longer immobility time observed in males. In an interventional experiment, a single dose of testosterone had no effect on gonadectomized male and female rats in the forced swim test. In contrast to previous studies this comprehensive behavioral phenotyping of aged rats revealed no major role of endogenous testosterone. Based on our results long-term hypogonadism does not alter the behavior of aged male rats, neither does acute testosterone treatment. Whether these findings have any consequences on androgen replacement therapy in aged men remains to be elucidated.

Evolutionary framework for identifying sex- and species-specific vulnerabilities in brain development and functions.

Sexual selection describes the reproductive dynamics that drive the evolution of many sex differences but is rarely used to guide the study of brain development or function. This Mini-Review describes how these dynamics can result in trait elaboration in one sex or the other and why these traits have a heightened sensitivity to stressors. The framework provides a conceptual model that will help to organize what we know about sex differences in brain and cognition, a means to focus the search for additional sex differences, and a means to predict brain systems that are particularly vulnerable to disruption by exposure to stressors. This Mini-Review briefly illustrates these points using sex differences in birdsong and spatial navigation to highlight the benefits and the nuances of using evolutionary theory to help frame neuroscience studies of sex differences. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.