Severe Cold Zone Research Articles

Physiological and perceptual responses due to exposure to three indoor temperatures in cold environments

According to the Chinese National Standard, 18 ℃, 14 ℃, and 8 ℃ are three indoor winter temperature settings in winter for urban residences in the severe cold (SC) and cold (C) zones, rural residences in the SC and C zones, and rural residences in the hot summer and cold winter (HSCW) zone, respectively. This paper investigates the rationality behind these three temperatures by studying the physiological and perceptual responses due to exposure to these three indoor temperatures. Ten subjects were recruited and physiological parameters were continuously recorded. Perceptual parameters were simultaneously collected after each temperature setting was reached and stabilized for 30 min. To evaluate individual flexibility, the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) was conducted after 30 min of exposure to each cold environment. Results show that measured physiological parameters except for skin temperature and skin flux are not significantly different at the three temperatures, whereas perceptual parameters except for GATB are significantly different at the three temperatures. When the subjects wore typical winter clothes (1.48 clo), most of the subjects were neutral or slightly warm and found the environment with 18℃ and 14℃ to be clearly acceptable. Thus, it is reasonable to have indoor temperature settings at 18℃ and 14℃ for residences in the SC and C zones. However, most of the subjects felt slightly cool or cold in an 8℃ environment and found this temperature to be just acceptable or just unacceptable, which indicates that 8℃ is cold as an indoor temperature setting under the existing conditions. Thus, rural residents in the HSCW zones must wear thicker clothes or exercise more to survive in the winter and cannot endure 8℃ for a long period of time. Future national standards should adopt a higher indoor temperature setting instead of 8℃ to ensure the health of residents.

Comprehensive energy efficiency study of different climate -adapted BIPV roof forms in single-family houses for five climate zones of China based on PV energy substitution rates (PVESR)

As a type of energy production construction, building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) roofs are contributing for achieving NZEB goals. Considering building sites’ climate attributes with possible size of PV systems can help to reduce the initial investment and energy consumption of building operation and maintenance. This paper investigates the energy production and energy consumption patterns of single-family houses, which is designed to evaluate the comprehensive energy efficiency of BIPV roofs to meet energy demands by photovoltaic energy substitution ratio (PVESR) calculations. Five typical cities were selected, corresponding to the five climate zones in China; eight forms of BIPV roofs were developed according to single-family houses’ common scale and spatial characteristics. The results show that (1) The PVESR varies significantly between different climate zones and different forms of BIPV roofs, so pre-survey of BIPV roof application sites and comparison of roof forms are relevant in preliminary architecture design. The climate zones where energy balance can be achieved are hot-summer & warm-winter zones, hot-summer & cold-winter zones and moderate zones, and the average PVESR based on the eight roof prototypes are 0.987, 1.136 and 2.272 respectively; the corresponding PVESR for cold zones and severe cold zones are 0.807 and 0.475. (2) The peak and trough values of capacity and energy use are not exactly matching in the five climate zones, especially in severe cold zones, cold zones and hot-summer & cold-winter zones’ winter. (3) The high heating demand in winter is the main reason for the failure to balance BIPV production and energy consumption in severe cold zones and cold zones. The comprehensive energy efficiency evaluation method of BIPV roofs proposed in this paper can provide data support and application guidance for form design and size determination of BIPV roofs in five climate zones in China.

Application of synergic evidence-based design and sustainable technology strategies in off-grid residential NZEBs in the severe cold zone of China: A case study of The Steppe Ark

Based on synergic evidence-based design principles, building practices can achieve sustainable benefits throughout the life cycle. Taking example of an off-grid residential nearly zero energy building (NZEB) in China’s severe cold zone, the application and sustainability assessment of sustainable technologies can be comprehensively achieved through a closed-loop process: preliminary research, technology development & evaluation, on-site construction and feedback & optimisation. The Steppe Ark is one of such a residential building that takes synergic evidence-based design strategies, proposing and validating three types of technology strategies: integrated design of space based on function and performance, high performance passive technology and efficient active technology. The results show that: (1) the NZEB-oriented building envelope improves the thermal stability of the building, with indoor temperatures decreasing by only 0.07°C per hour when no equipment in operation; (2) the variable multifunctional façade and daylight reflectors have good lighting and insulation energy efficiency, with a combined energy saving rate of 22.1%; (3) Flat gravity heat pipes and thermal storage materials (bricks and PCM) have good performance in terms of heat storage and release. The average indoor daytime temperature can be increased by 3.80°C; the daily temperature difference can be reduced by 52.85% compared to the control group; (4) Stirling motors generate electricity while utilizing the waste heat for the building’s floor heating system; (5) the 5.5kWp BIPV system can generate 6.65MWh of electricity per year. This study proposes a pathway for assessing the suitability of building technology through synergic evidence-based design principles. The analysis shows that three types of technology strategies in off-grid residential NZEBs in the severe cold zone of China can achieve good environmental and economically sustainable benefits.

A semi-experimental investigation on the anti-frosting potential of homogenizing the uneven frosting for air source heat pumps

The uneven frosting on air source heat pumps’ (ASHPs) outdoor coils is undesired product, as it comes with additional defrosting energy consumption and may aggravate the frosting consequence. Homogenizing the uneven frosting may help suppressing frosting. In this study, visual experiments were conducted to clarify a typical uneven frosting phenomenon. It was observed that the air inlet side of ASHPs’ outdoor coils escaped from frosting, whereas frost built up on the outlet side. To clarify the air temperature/relative humidity (RH) conditions that would cause such uneven frosting, the frosting plot was depicted. On the frosting plot, most of the frosting region was occupied by the uneven frosting region. Homogenizing the uneven frosting may shrink the uneven frosting region, and thereby reduce the chance of frosting. To study the anti-frosting potential of homogenizing uneven frosting, a semi-experimental model was developed. The model calculations demonstrated that, by homogenizing the uneven frosting, the maximal air temperature causing frosting would reduce about 2.5 °C, and the minimal RH causing frosting would increase about 10%. In China, after homogenizing the uneven frosting, it was found that the annual frosting duration in the severe cold zone and the cold zone would be reduced by 30% to 50%; in the hot summer and cold winter zone and the mild zone be reduced by 50% to 80%; and in the hot summer and warm winter zone may achieve frosting-free.

Quantitative Study on the Life-Cycle Carbon Emissions of a Nearly Zero Energy Building in the Severe Cold Zones of China

This work aimed to quantitatively study the carbon emissions and carbon reduction potential of a nearly Zero Energy Building in a severe cold zone of China from the perspective of its life cycle. The methods were based on China’s “Standard for building carbon emission calculation” (GB/T51366-2019), which include the production, transportation, operation, and demolition stages. For the nearly Zero Energy Building, the total carbon emissions over its whole life were 789.43 kg CO2/m2, an 86.20% reduction compared to the 5719.68 kg CO2/m2 for a 65% energy-saving building. The carbon emission percentages of the production stage and operation stage for the building materials are 75.62% and 20.40%, respectively. To enhance the carbon reduction potential, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to explore the impact of the use of a wood structural system, recycled concrete replacement, and photovoltaic power generation. The use of a wood structure system can achieve zero or negative carbon emissions in the production stage. The sensitivity of the carbon emissions of the nearly zero energy building (nZEB) to the increment of photovoltaic power generation is much higher than that of the recycled concrete replacement rate, providing a basis for further exploration of the development of nZEBs into zero carbon buildings.

Characterizing regional building energy consumption under joint climatic and socioeconomic impacts

Building energy consumption (BEC) control is of significance in the context of pursuing more intensive carbon emission reduction. How climatic and socioeconomic conditions dually drive regional BEC remains to be explored in depth. This study tracks the whole-process BEC in 24 Chinese provincial regions with diverse climatic and socioeconomic conditions and reveals the spatial pattern and driving mechanism. The results indicate that the BEC is 1.51 billion tons of oil-equivalent in 2016, with 51.7% for material preparation, 4.0% for construction-demolition and 44.3% for operation stage. More economically developed regions have larger BEC (Jiangsu, Shandong, Guangdong). Climatic conditions have more decisive effect on regions with larger energy consumption of operation (mainly distributed in severe cold zone and hot summer warm winter zone), which is determined by thermal performance of buildings. Socioeconomic conditions have more decisive effect on regions with larger energy consumption of material preparation (mainly distributed in cold zone, hot summer cold winter zone and temperate zone), which is determined by trends in urbanization rate and population. Based on the findings of this work, more consideration regarding climatic and socioeconomic conditions can be incorporated into the formulation of regional building energy conservation policies for more pertinent BEC control.

Experimental Study on Freeze-Thaw Effects on Creep Characteristics of Rubber Concrete

Crumb Rubber Concrete (CRC) can exhibit high freeze-thaw resistance, but its long-term creep behavior under various freeze-thaw conditions remains unclear, which is essential for the safety of pavement engineering in the severe cold zone. In this study, the freeze-thaw effects on the creep behavior of CRC under different stress levels were systematically analyzed by testing the compressive strength, the uniaxial creep under different stress levels, and the dynamic elastic modulus. To simulate real conditions of the road environment in the cold area, the lowest temperature of −20°C, six freeze-thaw cycles of 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150, and seven different stress levels of 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9 of the compressive strength were employed in this study. The test results showed that the mass loss rate was 6%–11.2% and the compressive strength decreased by 6.51%–47% after 30–150 freeze-thaw cycles. When the stress level reached its critical value, the relative dynamic elastic modulus decreased with the number of freeze-thaw cycles. After 150 freeze-thaw cycles, failure did not appear when the stress level was lower than 50%, above which the creep failure was determined by the stress level and the number of the freeze-thaw cycles. Meanwhile, it was found that the cracking and interfacial debonding between the matrix and the crumb rubber particle were the main reasons for the degradation of CRC creep performance. Finally, a Weibull distribution-based empirical creep damage model was established to predict the failure of CRC, which can enhance its application to related engineering.

Evaluation of the performance of ventilative cooling systems with different control parameters

To evaluate the performance and energy savings of different ventilative cooling systems, three mixed forms of ventilative cooling were described and the most promising rule-based heuristic control criteria were used as applicable control strategies based on various control parameters. Parametric analyses including the ventilative cooling set-points and control frequencies have been conducted. EnergyPlus was used to perform the aforementioned analyses based on a typical office building. Case studies verified that the use of different control parameters led to different indoor air environment and energy performance in a certain climatic zone. Then, the percentages outside the range indexes (POR) of the three mixed forms of ventilative cooling with various control parameters in five representative climatic zones in China were calculated, the results demonstrated that the ventilative cooling performance was mainly related to the ventilative cooling form in HSCW, HSWW, and temperate climatic zones. While in cold and severe cold climatic zones, it was mainly affected by selection of control parameters and its corresponding set-points. It can provide guidance for the selection of ventilative cooling scheme capable of maintaining indoor environment level with a low energy consumption in different climatic zones of China.

Construction of Climate Adaptability Evaluation Indicator System for Urban Spaces in the Severe Cold Zones of China—A Case Study on the Central Area of Harbin

Climate adaptation research should consider both climate change and regional climate contexts. Research evaluating the regional climate adaptability of urban spaces helps identify weaknesses of climate resilience in spatial planning. This paper constructs a climate adaptation evaluation indicator system for cities in the severe cold zones of China, and evaluates the temporal-spatial changes of climate adaptability in the central area of Harbin. The evaluation outcome reveals that the overall climate adaptability of the study area generally improved from 2008 to 2017 despite staying at a relatively lower level. There are significant differences in spatial pattern and development of spatial elements of climate adaptability by districts. Accordingly, this paper proposes countermeasures supporting future decision-making on climate adaptation planning for the study area, offering a reference for other cities in the severe cold zones of China.

Load shifting potential assessment of building thermal storage performance for building design

As major energy consumers, buildings have great potential to alleviate the imbalance between renewable energy generation and consumer demand. A building thermal mass is a free energy storage object, and can provide a load shifting capacity. In this study, a parameter denoted the ‘effective thermal capacitance’ was proposed to characterise the building thermal mass, and a reduced-order RC model was established to predict the building cooling and heating loads. By using the particle swarm optimisation algorithm to identify the effective thermal capacitance values, the linear relationships between the effective thermal capacitance and building areas were summarised. The results show that, with an increase in the effective thermal capacitance, the hourly load and energy losses caused by load shifting strategies decrease. According to comparison results from applying the preheating and precooling strategies in four climatic zones of China, it is found that although the total load throughout the day is increased, the peak electricity consumption can be shifted without noticeable changes in the daily electric bill. During office hours, the preheating strategy reduces the heating load by approximately 12% in the severe cold and cold zones, whereas precooling reduced the cooling load by 20%–45% in all four climatic zones.

The operational performance of net zero energy wooden structure building in the severe cold zone: A case study in Hailar of China

At present, there is no lack of research on net zero energy buildings (nZEB) in China, and most of the research on “nZEB” focuses on buildings using traditional building materials like rebar concrete, brick, etc. In this paper, we take a wooden structure residential building in the severe cold zone as the research object, design a new type of water-passing wooden structure wall, and explore how to achieve net zero energy consumption through appropriate methods in the design stage. During the operation of the wooden structure building throughout the year, the solar photovoltaic (PV) system provides electricity to the building. In the heating season, we will supply groundwater or shallow geothermal water into the water pipes in the wall,and the solar thermal system provides hot water for heating. According to the whole year operation of the wooden structure building, the indoor environment meets the requirements of comfort standards, and the designed envelope structure of the wooden structure building has an excellent thermal performance. The energy consumption was reduced by 62.9% compared with energy-saving buildings without water-passing walls. The electricity generation capacity of the solar PV system is more than the actual electricity consumption of the building, the energy criteria are met the relevant requirements of the net zero energy building, and its economy is also evaluated.

Energy, environmental and economic performance evaluation of energy pile system under different climate conditions

Energy pile is an innovative geothermal heat exchanger (GHE) in ground source heat pump (GSHP) system, which integrates GHE pipe into concrete pile, and therefore, provides a green solution for indoor air conditioning with fossil fuel consumption substituted by geothermal energy. In the study, we propose a sustainability analysis framework for energy pile system to holistically evaluate the energy-saving potential as well as economic and environmental benefits of energy pile system by integrating the whole building energy modeling software OpenStudio V2.8.0 and energy pile design software GLHEPro V5.0, fully considering components of the energy pile, heat pump, and building. A comparison study is conducted based on a U.S. DOE benchmark high-rise apartment with baseline heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system, district heating and cooling system, and energy pile system across seven climate zones in China. The results reveal the energy-saving benefits of an energy pile system are highly dependent on climate zones, ranging from 19% to 45%, which correspond to 21–40% utility cost-saving, and 25–36% CO2 emission reduction. Among the seven climate zones in China, the severe cold zones I, VI, and VII benefit the most by applying energy pile systems, while the mild zone V benefits the least in all energy, environmental and economic aspects. The cold zone II and hot-summer cold-winter region III are most favorable to apply energy pile systems because no performance degradation is predicted over years. The hot-summer and warm-winter zone IV is also suitable for energy pile systems, but the payback period is reasonably longer.

Operation performance study and prediction of photovoltaic thermal heat pump system engineering in winter

An array arrangement strategy of photovoltaic thermal modules and a connection form of refrigerant pipeline were innovatively proposed by author’s research group. Subsequently, the photovoltaic thermal heat pump system engineering was designed and constructed, and then the performance study of system heating in continuous operation and stage operation in winter was carried out in January 2021. During the system operation, the average coefficient of heating performance of the system was 2.95 in daytime stage operating, 2.55 in nighttime stage operating and 2.07 in continuous operating. To conduct the application simulation of photovoltaic thermal heat pump system, first the prediction model of system heating performance based on back propagation neural network was established and verified according to the operational parameters, then 12 cities of typical climate zone in China were selected to conduct operation simulation and performance prediction to analyze the regional applicability of the system, finally the performance prediction of system heating under variable working conditions was carried out to guide the design calculation of engineering application of photovoltaic thermal heat pump system engineering. It can be concluded that the system was more suitable for engineering application in cities of cold zone and hot summer and cold winter zone than that in severe cold zone. Besides that, the integration and operation optimization of system should be carried out to reduce the average temperature of the circulating hot water tank so that the energy efficiency of hot water system can be improved by 42%.

Rational assessment and selection of air source heat pump system operating with CO2 and R407C for electric bus

Heat pump technology has gained surging interests due to its abilities in reducing the battery burden of the electric bus. Here, three heat pump systems for an 8 m bus are compared, including a R407C system, a basic transcritical CO2 system (CO2-BASE), and a transcritical CO2 system with an expansion-compression integrated machine (CO2-Advanced). The results demonstrate that the optimal ratio of the theoretical volume of the expander to the compressor in expander-compressor machine can improve the coefficient of performance (COP) of the CO2-BASE system in all cooling conditions, with a range of 0.165–0.190. The COP of the CO2-Advanced system has 13.59% improvement than that of the R407C system at most in cooling mode. In addition, the performances of the three systems run in five typical climates in China are compared. The comparison result shows that the CO2-BASE system is more suitable for Severe Cold Zone and Mild Zone, and the R407C system performs better in Hot summer and Warm winter Zone. However, the CO2-Advanced system, which has the best energy-saving effect in all climate zones in China, has a great potential to replace the existing R407C system for electric buses.

Comprehensive analysis of rural heating by methanol heating stove: Economy, emissions, and energy consumption

Coal-fired heating, mainly used in North China, has caused serious environmental problems. Schemes to replace coal have been established, but they are not suitable for all scenarios. This paper proposes a heating scheme that uses a methanol heating stove (MHS) to meet the demand for clean, low-cost rural heating. The economy, emissions, and energy consumption of the MHS were analyzed. The scheme was compared with five common rural heating methods. The effects of the methanol price, power grid transformation, and gas pipeline construction on the annual cost of each heating scheme were investigated using a theoretical model. The MHS emitted 66 % less CO2 and 95 % less SO2 and NOx and consumed 54 % less standard coal than bulk coal heating stoves. The low electricity supply required to vaporize methanol contributed to the cost and emission reduction. Methanol price fluctuations warrant government subsidies to incentivize the implementation of the scheme. For increased adoption, we recommend that the MHS be used in areas with low population densities and methanol prices. This approach can therefore be an ideal substitute for “coal-to-electricity” and “coal-to-gas” methods in areas that lack access to power or gas supplies and can replace air-source heat pumps in severe cold zones.

Pre-weaned dairy calf management practices, morbidity and mortality of bovine respiratory disease and diarrhea in China

Controlling disease, maintaining animal well-being, and sustaining production efficiency in Chinese dairy industry will depend on whether enough of China's dairy farmers can adopt proper calf management practices. Consequently, to provide insights into a number of beneficial management practices used by many Chinese dairy farmers, ninety-eight dairy farms, located in the country's three typical climate zones (severe cold zone, SCZ; cold zone, CZ; and hot-summer/cold-winter zone, HSCWZ) were surveyed. The various management practices employed and the morbidity and mortality rates caused by bovine respiratory disease and diarrhea were recorded at each investigated farm. About three quarters of the calves on these farms were housed indoors (either individually or in group pens). The proportion of the calves reared in separate pens (individual indoor or outdoor hutches) was highest (56.20%) at large-scale farms (> 500 cows), followed by 33.3% at medium-scale farms (50–500 cows). A majority of the investigated farms (≥ 68.04%) did not have a system for monitoring either temperature, relative humidity, or air quality. A medium depth (score 2) of bedding was most common at 42.11% of the farms. 87.76% of the farms relied on natural ventilation. 36.10% of the farms did not provide supplemental heating in the calf barn, and the heating methods most often used differed among the three climate zones. Manual milk feeders involving bottles or buckets were more common (83.67%) than automated milk feeders. The mean morbidity and mortality rates of pre-weaned calves infected with bovine respiratory disease were 11.73% (95% CI:10.2–13.23%) and 3.65% (95% CI: 2.85–4.45%), while those infected with diarrhea were 14.17% (95% CI: 12.46–15.88%) and 3.61% (95% CI: 2.97–4.25%). The rates were highest in the SCZ, in spring and winter, and among group-housed calves. These results should provide insights that could lead to better management practices improvements that will help to sustain not only China's dairy farms but also dairy farms operated in the similar climate zones around the world.

Indoor exposure levels of ammonia in residences, schools, and offices in China from 1980 to 2019: A systematic review.

Indoor ammonia (NH3 ) pollution has been paid more and more attention in view of its health risk. However, few studies have investigated the exposure level in the non-occupational environment in China. This study systematically reviewed the indoor ammonia exposure level in different regions, the equivalent exposure concentration of different populations, and the factors that influence indoor air ammonia in residences, offices, and schools in China. The literature published in 1980-2019 from main databases was searched and detailed screened, and finally, 56 related studies were selected. The results illustrated that the median concentration of indoor air ammonia in residences, offices, and school buildings was 0.21mg/m3 , 0.26mg/m3 , and 0.15mg/m3 . There were 46.4%, 71.4%, and 40% of these samples exceeding the NH3 standard, respectively. The national concentrations and the equivalent exposure levels of adults and children were calculated and found to be higher than 0.20mg/m3 . The concentration of ammonia varied greatly in different climate zones and economic development regions. Higher concentrations were found in the severe cold zone and the regions with higher economic level. This review reveals a high exposure risk of indoor air ammonia and the crucial impact of human emission, indoor air temperature, new concrete, and economic level, suggesting further investigation on indoor air ammonia evaluation and health effects.

Regional suitability of heating tower heat pumps based on technical and economic performance maps

Heating tower heat pump (HTHP) technology is evolving rapidly owing to its good performance in summer and frost-free operation in winter. However, a lack of comprehensive comparisons between the HTHP and conventional methods, such as the air-source heat pump (ASHP), and the chiller and boiler, significantly limits its applications. To solve this problem, this paper analyzes the technological and economic performance of these three types of systems at 353 locations over China. The principle of energy saving and potential of the HTHP are presented, based on which a comparison of economic performance is conducted by considering the efficiency of energy conversion and cost of the three systems. The results show that the HTHP is superior to the ASHP at most locations in China, with a 10% to 20% higher annual performance factor (APF). For locations in southwest China, this improvement is less than 10% owing to the large regeneration penalty in winter, and minor differences between dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures in summer. The APF of the HTHP is 10% to 23% higher than the chiller and boiler system in the hot summer and cold winter zone as well as the cold zone. However, the HTHP exhibits no advantage over this system in the severe cold zone because of the low efficiency of the heat pump in winter, or in the hot summer and warm winter zone owing to the small heating load. The results are used to develop technical and economic performance maps to guide the application of the HTHP in different climatic regions.

Research on theoretical energy saving rate of cooling and heating with intelligent temperature control of office buildings in Xinjiang typical climate zone

At present, many office buildings in Xinjiang generally use continuous movement of heating and cooling systems, heating and cooling excessively caused the energy waste, the use of intelligent control equipment system can effectively save energy. This paper uses the parametric performance simulation toolset (Ladybug tools) to model the energy consumption of office buildings in four typical climatic regions in Xinjiang. It simulates two methods of intelligent control (ICS) and continuous operation (COS) in different window-to-wall ratio (WWR) the influence of heating and cooling energy consumption load. Considering the additional equipment energy consumption (ΔE) of ICS, the control energy saving rate (ƞ) is compared ICS with COS. The results show that in different climate zones and with different WWR, ICS is more energy-efficient at the heating and cooling methods than COS. Moreover, in different climate conditions, office buildings with different WWR have different energy-saving rates. The change of the WWR has a small effect on the η value in the Severe Cold Zone C, and the η value in the Cold Zone A region decreases with the WWR becomes larger. This study further proves that the contribution of intelligently controlled heating and air-conditioning systems of building energy conservation and provides a favourable basis for refined energy development.

Field investigation on thermal comfort of passengers in an airport terminal in the severe cold zone of China

Numerous airport terminals are being constructed in China. However, the current Chinese standards do not specify an indoor comfort zone for airport terminals. Therefore, this study aims to understand the thermal comfort demand of passengers and provide references for designing an indoor thermal environment in airport terminals. We selected typical periods in May 2019, August 2019, and January 2020 to conduct a thermal comfort field study in an airport terminal in the severe cold zone of China. 640 valid questionnaires were collected in the departure lounge during different seasons, and 625 valid questionnaires from different functional zones during winter were analysed. The neutral Top of passengers was 25.6 °C, 23.7 °C, and 17.7 °C in the departure lounge in summer, transition season, and winter, respectively. The 80% and 90% acceptability ranges of passengers in the departure lounge in transition season and winter were wider than in summer, indicating that passengers were easily adaptable to the indoor environment. Differences are observed in the thermal comfort demands of passengers with different dwell times. Because of the difference in metabolic rates, the preferred temperature in the baggage reclaim (16.2 °C) was lower than in the check-in hall and departure lounge (20.3 °C and 20.7 °C, respectively) during winter. This indicates that different design parameters should be developed according to the characteristics of the metabolic rate and dwell time in different functional zones. The findings from this study show excellent energy-saving potential in airport terminals in winter.