Seventh Century Research Articles

THE CULTURE OF DELIBERATION IN MUSLIM SOCIETY AND THE CHALLENGE OF MUTUAL RESPECT AMONG CULTURES: SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PERSPECTIVES

The paper makes a brief account of what H.A.R. Gibb said was the historic and decisive event in achieving consensus —the classical practice used in deciding the succession of the Prophet (×aÌrat Muhammad RasËlullah KhÉtam un NabiyyÊn Øallallahu ‘alaihi wa ‘alÉ Ólihi wa AÎÍÉbihi wa Øallam) employing the procedure of al-ShËra or deliberation or consultation in the seventh century CE, the success of democratically electing the leader of the new emerging Muslim society. The paper explores several further cases of the more institutionalized culture of deliberation among the (Sunni) Muslim society across the socio-cultural changes from the medieval centuries up to the present day world, in multi-cultural societies. Deliberation is roughly of two types—democratic and undemocratic as in the Chinese political system. The concepts used include Al-Mawardi’s Ahl ×all Wal ‘Aqd (AHWA) —first suggested in the 10th century CE and fully developed some three hundred years later. The concept emerged in connection with the mechanism of electing the chief executive officer (CEO) in state governments which needed deliberation of AHWA’s members (those who are qualified to act on behalf of the Muslim community in electing a caliph). The study is based on secondary data gathered from books and articles. The paper aims to contribute to “re-inventing democratic deliberation” in the past for better understanding the contemporary trend to move towards deliberation in democratic politics—which also gives positive impact to develop mutual respect among multi-cultural societies. The main finding of the study is that there is a significant spread of deliberation in politics and governments among Muslims societies in the countries under study. Deliberation is roughly of two types—democratic and un-democratic as in the context of Chinese political system. The concepts used include Al-Mawardi’s Ahl Hall Wal Aqd (AHWA) —developed in the 10th century or three hundred years after that. The concept is a mechanism to elect chief executive officer (CEO) in state governments which conveys the need for having capacity to deliberate of AHWA’s members. The study employs qualitative method, with secondary data gathered from books and articles, especially those that are made available electronically. The study is expected to contribute to the re-invention of the democratic deliberation in the past for better understanding of contemporary move towards deliberative turn in democratic politics—which eventually give positive impact on development of mutual respect among multi-cultural societies. The finding of the study is significant spread of the deliberation in politics and governments among Muslims societies in the cases of the countries and has impacted on customs of deliberation in a given society, including in multi-cultural societies.

The Political Situation of Badaun during the Mamluk Era (602-689 AH / 1206-1290 AD)

Objectives: This study aims to shed light on the political situation of the city of Badaun: the extent of its connection with the capital Delhi, the number of rulers who governed it during the Mamluk era (602-689 AH/1206-1290 AD), and its most prominent governors, especially those who later became sultans.
 Methods: Relying on Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and English sources and references, the study adopts the historical approach. It is divided into three sections. The first provides background information on the location of Badaun, while the second focuses on the Islamic conquest of Badaun during the Ghurid era (543-612 AH/1148-1215 AD). The third section tackles the political situation of Badaun during the Mamluk era (602-689 AH/1206-1290 AD).
 Results: Due to its significance, the city was strongly connected with the capital Delhi. Badaun was ruled by no less than fourteen governors, the first of whom is Qutbuddin Aibak and the last King Baqbak Sargandar. Not only were its rulers considered among the most important governors of India, they were so respected and valued by the sultans of Delhi that some of them became sultans.
 Conclusions: Badaun was considered one of the most important fiefdoms, allocated to powerful rulers in the first half of the seventh century AH / thirteenth century AD. Its most prominent governors include Qutbuddin Aibak (the founder of the Mamluk Sultanate), Shams al-Din al-Tamash, Rukn al-Din Firuz Shah, and Ghiyath al-Din Balban, all of whom who assumed the throne of the Sultanate of Delhi.

Presunta "chiesa biabsidata" nel monastero di San Venerio sull’isola del Tino (SP)

The origin of medieval churches with two apses has long been a matter of investigation. Upon the rocky isle of Tino, emerging from the gulf of Spezia, once a monastery under the title of San Venerio did stand. Today, its area preserves ruins believed to belong to a double-apse church. Previous studies had possibly detected a single-hall church, dating back to the sixth or seventh century, to which a second nave should have been added during the ninth century. In consideration of such early dates, it was claimed that the monument was the prototype of double-apse churches across the old diocese of Luni. New excavations carried out in 2021 and 2022 by the Archaeological Superintendence of Genoa and La Spezia have led to a significant revision of the Tino’s complex. First, the architectural plan does not provide evidence of any double-apse church. Furthermore, the masonry suggests the first half of the eleventh century. Remarkably enough, in that period, some descendants of the Marquis Obertus invited a monastic community to settle on the renewed island. Therefore, the structure in question may have been a commemorative chapel (memoria), erected by the Benedictines to mark the supposed place of hermitage and death of Venerius: a respected Saint whose cult the monks wanted to be revived in the interest of themselves and their supporters.

Arab Migration During Early Islam: The Seventh to Eighth Century AD from an Archaeological Perspective

Abstract The topic of Arab migration during the medieval period has occupied many modern historians. The evidence for migration in chronicles and geographies, however, is quite thin. This article looks at these texts as well as at contemporary “archaeological texts” (inscriptions and papyri documents) and archaeology. Each of these sources provides different information under different limitations which sometimes correlates with another. One main focus of the article is the ability of archaeology to answer – alone – the question about Arab migration. For that purpose, two archaeological models are proposed. One model highlights the link between the material culture of two regions (origin and destination) in two sequent times and its evolvement in the destination. The other model points to continuous links between origin and destination and the evolvement of material culture in the origin. The models are compared to a number of case studies from the early Islamic period (seventh to tenth century AD) in the Levant, Spain, and additional regions. The case studies present innovations which might reflect migrants: irrigation methods, specific forms of architecture, production techniques of portable artifacts, and evidence for a new confession – Islam. While the archaeological records of early Islam are often too limited to answer most of the models’ criteria, two case studies seem promising: soapstone pots/bowls and early Muslim burials. Both cases imply the migration of people from the Arabian Peninsula elsewhere in the eighth or even the seventh century.

An Overview of Land Routes in Byzantine Anatolia (ca. 4th-7th c. CE)

This paper presents an overview of land routes in Byzantine Anatolia during the period between the fourth and seventh centuries CE and aims to explain the development of the routes in Byzantine Anatolia in a changing context. Understanding the emergence of routes, which expanded in Byzantine Anatolia, comes from the earlier-built Roman roads. The development and the use of routes during the period in question were largely shaped by the construction and use of Roman roads, both administratively and politically. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Romans restored the main roads until the early seventh century, and maintained them during the Byzantine period. The use of routes was significantly impacted by the foundation of Constantinople as the new capital and the development of more ‘centralized rule’ in the Roman Empire in the fourth century. Rather than explaining and discussing all the routes of Anatolia in detail, this study aims to outline the ways in which major routes developed in Byzantine Anatolia.

Figürliche Reliefs frühchristlicher Zeit in Kleinasien (4.-6. / 7. Jahrhundert n.Chr.)

In Asia Minor, only a relatively small number of reliefs with biblical depictions or images of saints from the early Christian period (fourth to sixth / seventh centuries AD) have been preserved. They represent an exceedingly small percentage of what was likely actually produced, with a substantial amount considered to be lost. This makes it difficult to classify the art based on geographic region, in comparison, for example, to the proliferation of the Roman grave reliefs of the second and third centuries. Nevertheless, Asia Minor was of an area of great importance for the theology of early Christianity. Numerous churches from the Early Byzantine period have been preserved or at least documented. Many were large and magnificent buildings, showing excellent masonry techniques, and some had unusual shapes. The churches were richly adorned with capitals, barrier plates, and ambons, as well as floor mosaics. Although only a few remnants of wall paintings and mosaics are preserved today, it can be assumed that most of churches possessed them. While there are portrait sculptures and busts of excellent quality, very few reliefs are based on the Bible. They are almost all very simple pieces, in terms of craftsmanship, with a few exceptions. The existence, not only, of the customary iconography, but also rare and unique character depictions of the reliefs of biblical scenes, illustrates the reach of the Byzantine Church in even the most remote areas of that region, shedding light on Late Antique art in Asia Minor as the heartland of the Byzantine Empire.

Городские стены Боспора в юстиниановское время

Procopius of Caesarea’s account that Emperor Justinian I, having found the fortress walls of the capital of the Bosporan Kingdom destroyed, strengthened them, is of fundamental importance for the understanding of the limits of this city in the Early Byzantine Period. For ages, the researchers have been discussing the spatial organization of the city in question in the sixth century. Some of them have inferred that Early Byzantine Bosporos was reduced to a small town in the area of the ancient port, where Justinian had erected the fortress walls, along the contour of which the Genoese-Turkish castle was built later. Other researchers have supposed that the walls of Bosporos were simply repaired under this Byzantine emperor. To a large extent, the solution to this question is hampered by the limited volume of written sources. When the evidence of the kind is absent, archaeological sources should play the main role. However, in the case of Kerch, the large-scale systematic archaeological excavations are restricted due to the continuity of the area covered by urban buildings. The analysis of the areas of the Bosporan city in question which lay far from each other and were uncovered by small-size archaeological researches allows a rather fragmentary notion of the specifics and dynamics of the urban development. However, one has enough reasons to state that the six-century city of Bosporos occupied a significant part of the territory of ancient Pantikapaion, with the lower town extended at least 500 m northwards of the foot of Mithridates Hill. Under Emperor Justinian I, the old fortress walls in the lower (flat) part of the city were repaired in certain areas, as it comes from archaeological data, particularly uncovered in recent years. There is no objective evidence of the condition of the walls of the upper town, where a few nests of residential buildings continued in the sixth century. In the seventh century, the entire city area reduced to the flat territory (ca 25–30 hectares), protected by fortress walls, and the upper town became a cemetery.

The Human Reproduction, Pregnancy and Development of Human Embryo: A Research Analysis in the Light of Islam

Man is the best of all the creatures created by Allah Al-Mighty and He looks after all the affairs directly or indirectly related to human being. The holy Quran is the last of all the revelations revealed to the last Prophet and is enriched in all types of sciences. The miraculous nature of the Qur’ān is evident from its marvelous descriptions of the biological phenomena of human life, especially reproduction, pregnancy, and embryo development. It appeals to its readers with the consistency between the details of the biological processes it provides in the seventh century and the scientific knowledge that man has attained in this era of embryological research and technology. This research article seeks to interpret relevant Qur’ānic verses with a dimension of anatomical and physiological explanations. It tries to synchronize exegetical references with current information about reproduction and pregnancy.

Portable Faith: Toward a Non-Site-Specific History of Buddhist Art in Japan

From small-scale shrines to handheld icons and votive tablets, portability has long factored into the design and reception of Buddhist art. This article charts the uses and design of portable objects that are as instrumental and effective as their monumental counterparts in disseminating Buddhism in Japan. The article first examines the circulation of miniature icons that served as diplomatic gifts in the sixth and seventh centuries. It then turns to figurative plaques from Tang-dynasty China (618–907) that were modified for votive and architectural uses in early Japan. Lastly, the article examines the reasons underlying the enduring popularity of portable shrines in the archipelago. In sum, this article asks: What factors determined the size, scale, and materiality of Buddhist art? More importantly, how does the case of the portable speak to the discipline of Buddhist art that often preoccupies itself with the monumental and the site-specific?

Absolute dating of construction materials and petrological characterisation of mortars from the Santalla de Bóveda Monument (Lugo, Spain)

The construction materials of the Santalla de Bóveda Monument, one of the most studied buildings in Galicia (Spain), are analysed to date the mortars and bricks of walls and vaults by combining three dating techniques: optically stimulated luminescence, radiocarbon and thermoluminescence. Petrological characterisation of the mortars themselves is carried out. Until now, the paintings on the vault have been interpreted as Roman, early Christian or Pre-Romanesque, depending on the interpretative framework used by the researcher who studied them. There is also no consensus on their functionality. A total of 21 samples were collected, and 39 datings were made. The results are conclusive: the original building dates from the second half of the fourth century AD, the paintings date from the beginning of the seventh century or the upper floor from the tenth to twelfth centuries. These results make it necessary to review the history of Galician architecture between Late Antiquity and the Early Medieval Ages.

Inscription Proving Snake Worship Found in Bijapur District of the Bastar Division

In ancient times, small kingdoms of Nagas were established all over Northern India. Different branches of Nagas existed in different areas all over India. After the fall of Nala dynasty, the rule of Naga dynasty was established in Bastar region. Chhindak dynasty of Nagas was in power in Bastar. There were about 6 branches of the Chhindak clan of Nagas in India, out of which two branches were ruling in Chakrakot and Bhramarkot of today's Bastar. The same 4 branches of Chhindak clan were ruling in Bagalkot, Yelaburga, Belgutti and Bijapur of Karnataka. From around 760 A.D. to 1324 A.D., Chhindak rulers ruled Bastar for 700 years. In the 10th-11th century, the Chhindak rulers of Chakrakot established their independent kingdom. The Nagas ruled the Godavari region from about the first century to the fourth century, but there is no history of the Nagas between the fifth and seventh centuries. At the same time, there is information about the appearance of Guptas in Madhya Pradesh and Nagas in Karnataka under the name Chhindak.1 At the time when South Kosala was being ruled by the Kalchuris, at about the same time Bastar was under the rule of the Chhindak Naga kings. This Nagvanshi ruler held the title of “Bhogwati Purveshwar.”2 He was known as the Nagvanshi king of Chakrakot. In the Narayanapal inscription3, Dharavarsha has been given the title of “Maharaj Parambhattarak – Parmeshwar”. A Telugu inscription has been found from here, in which the names of Someshwara Dev and his queen are found. Who was probably a snake ruler. Two branches of the Naga rulers of Bastar are known, in which the symbol of the first branch was “Shavak Samyukta Vyaghra” and that of the second branch was “Kamal-Kadali.”4 On the basis of these symbols, it can probably be said that the first branch The rulers were Shaivites and the rulers of the other branch followed Vaishnav religion. Naga ruler Someshwar Dev had patronized Jainism, many statues of Jain Tirthankaras of his reign are found in every corner of Bastar.

Enslaved Christians, Jewish owners in Visigothic hagiography, theology and law

The Iberian Passio Mantii is a rare case of a late antique martyrdom account in which the protagonist, Mantius, is described as the Christian slave of Jewish owners who persecute him to death for not converting to Judaism. This unusual hagiographical text chimes with extensive legislation produced in Visigothic Iberia on the very question of Jewish ownership of Christian slaves. Placing these sources together and exploring their theological background allows us first to understand better the changes Visigothic legislators made to a long legal tradition of prohibiting both the conversion and ownership of Christian slaves by Jews. But it also allows us to go beyond the assumption that the sources reflect an active social practice and ask whether interest in Jews exercising power over Christians was part of the development of a discourse of Jewish danger that was itself fundamental to the elaboration of more clearly defined religious identities in the seventh century.

The Mineralogical, Chemical, and Physical Properties of Ceramic Building Material: Khirbet Edh-Dharih in Southern Jordan (First Century BC–Seventh Century AD)

ABSTRACT Throughout history, ceramic building material (CBM), such as bricks, tiles, and hypocaust tiles, along with decorative elements, have been of immense significance. To determine the mineralogical content, chemical composition, and physical property of such materials, as well as pottery sherds, excavated from the archaeological site of Khirbet Edh-Dharih in southern Jordan, a range of analytical techniques that include petrography, XRD, AAS, and SEM-EDX were utilized. The findings indicate that during the periods studied the potters followed the tradition of sourcing local raw materials and utilized relatively advanced manufacturing techniques. However, the late Byzantine–early Umayyad potters deviated from this norm by blending noncalcareous clay with coarsely crushed quartz in higher proportions and firing them at elevated temperatures. This resulted in a clay with a lower water absorption capacity, lower porosity, and higher bulk density, thus improving its durability.

Resurrecting Mitzpe Shivta: connections between monasticism and economy in the Late Antique Negev Desert

Occupation of Mitzpe Shivta in the Negev Desert coincided with times of economic and social upheaval and counterculture movements during the sixth and seventh centuries AD. Inscriptions and symbols found in rock-hewn rooms in the region indicate that while the agricultural economy declined during the late Byzantine period, pilgrimage and monasticism prospered.

On Shifting Social and Urban Landscapes in Uruk under Nabû-kudurrī-uṣur II

Abstract This paper discusses a small dossier of four documents concerning a house that stood in Neo-Babylonian Uruk. These documents, among which are two previously unpublished texts, offer a rare opportunity to follow the history of one property and one neighborhood over a period of more than half a century. Apart from supplying unique long-term data on property prices in Uruk, the dossier provides insight into various social and political changes that shaped Uruk’s urban landscape in the late seventh and early sixth centuries BC. In particular, it contributes to the evidence concerning a dramatic purge of Uruk elites that took place in the middle of Nabû-kudurrī-uṣur (Nebuchadnezzar) II’s reign.

Tracing early life histories from Roman times to the Medieval era: weaning practices and physiological stress

In humans, breastfeeding and weaning depend on the infant’s needs and physiology but are also influenced by environmental and cultural factors. While infant feeding strategies vary across different regions and historical eras, the associated transition from breastmilk to solid foods is universally thought to be stressful. However, still little is known about infant feeding practices and possibly associated stress in former times. This also applies to the period of transition from classical antiquity to medieval times, which shaped modern Western civilization. To enhance the understanding of childhood nutrition and stress during this period, we first analyzed stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in serial dentine samples from the first molars of 38 individuals buried in the region once known as the Roman frontier province of Raetia secunda, now encompassing Southern Bavaria. In addition, we investigated the presence of linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH), known to be a marker of unspecific physiological stress, within their dentition. We used this data to create isotope profiles that display dietary changes in comparison with the occurrence of LEH. We found highly variable δ15N and δ13C values and different shapes of isotope profiles which indicate different nutrition of breastfeeding individuals, complementary foods and post-weaning diets, and individual weaning patterns. For most individuals, the weaning process was completed between the ages of two and three. Interestingly, some females of non-local origin show longer weaning periods, likely displaying the influence of different cultural practices in other communities. We also found that LEH most frequently occurred in the post-weaning phase, which supports the assumption that children were at increased risk once breastfeeding had ceased completely. Furthermore, a change in the post-weaning diet in the seventh century coincided with an increased prevalence of LEH, indicating that the foods chosen or available during this time affected the susceptibility of children to stress. In conclusion, our study unveiled diverse infant feeding strategies practiced across various communities, both in different historical eras and geographical locations.

The Amulets from the Carthaginian tophet

Abstract Amulets found in burial urns of the Carthaginian tophet are discussed in terms of frequency of occurrence, and the nature and chronology of their material composition. Amulets were added in only 31 % of the urns studied, exclusively to urns containing human remains, with glass, faience, gold and silver the most common materials used. Chemical analysis of a selection of glass and silver amulets identified the primary origin of raw materials used in their manufacture. The primary glass used for the tophet amulets has its origin in the Levant and/or Egypt, from at least two different production centers in those regions. This does not exclude the likely existence of local secondary workshops where primary glass was colored and shaped. The silver in the amulets shows a diachronic shift in raw materials usage, from western Mediterranean sources in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE to eastern Mediterranean sources (possibly combined with Iberian sources) in the sixth and fifth centuries. Some objects could be positively linked to sources in Laurion/Kea and Siphnos, while others may have derived from the mixing of ores or the recycling of older materials.

Masters of mudbrick: Geoarchaeological analysis of Iron Age earthen public buildings at Ashdod‐Yam (Israel)

AbstractExcavations at Ashdod‐Yam exposed a fortification system that features a massive mudbrick wall with large earthen ramparts laid on either side. This fortified horseshoe‐shaped enclosure once surrounded what was likely a human‐made harbor and an adjacent acropolis with complex earthen architecture, constructed and active during Iron Age IIB–C (eighth–seventh centuries B.C.E.). These Iron Age public structures are at the center of the current research. In this paper, we present the geoarchaeological analyses of Ashdod‐Yam's earthen architecture. We applied a multidisciplinary methodology to new evidence for mudbrick manufacture with the goal of understanding the relationship between governing bodies and craftsmen. The analyses combine X‐ray fluorescence, loss on ignition, environmental scanning electron microscopy, and thin‐section petrography to investigate raw material procurement, manufacturing choices, and labor organization at Ashdod‐Yam during Iron IIB–C. Construction techniques and the standardization of the mudbrick recipe point to a local enterprise regarding the site's public earthen architecture. Furthermore, the degree of labor organization must have been closely observed and supervised by a central political power. Thus, it is argued here that construction and maintenance of the site was carried out by the kingdom of Ashdod, either as a part of its own local initiative or on behalf of the Neo‐Assyrian empire.

History of Maqtal al-Hossein Documents: From Factual History to Fictional History

The chronological account of Maqtal al-Hossein is a literary work that has been preserved and has become a source of inspiration for the formation of the collective identity of the Shi'a. However, Maqtal al-Hossein as a literary work, written based on the subjective understanding of its author, also leaves traces of distortion in the writing of Maqtal al-Hossein itself. This article aims to illustrate the gradual shift of Maqtal al-Hossein's narrative from historical to fictional. This article discusses (1) A discussion of the history of the writing of Maqtal al-Hossein as a development of literacy by previous writers, followed by a review of the history of the writing of the historical kitab Maqtal al-Hossein from the second century to the writing of Maqtal al-Hossein in the tenth century Hijri. (2). A review of the critical analysis of the text of the hadiths of Maqtal al-Hossein that indicated fiction from the third century Hijri to the tenth century Hijri in the two kitabs of Maqtal al-Hossein in the third century and Maqtal al-Hossein in the seventh century Hijri. The conclusion of this article shows that the writing of Maqtal al-Hossein from the period of the third century Hijri to the tenth century Hijri provides an argument about the shift in the historical value of writing the history of Maqtal al-Hossein, from historical facts to fictional narratives. Meanwhile, the writing of Maqtal al-Hossein from the tenth century was also influenced by the various interests of Islamic power at that time.

The Cretan way of war: status, violence and values from the Classical period to the Roman conquest

AbstractThe tactics of Cretan citizen armies differed markedly from those utilized in most regions of the Classical and Hellenistic Greek world: instead of fighting in phalanxes, Cretans fought in open order, specializing in archery, skirmishing, ambushes and night actions. These tactics (and the cultural attitudes that went with them) were disparaged by mainland Greeks such as Polybios and explained in terms of moral deviancy: a sign of the duplicitous nature of the Cretans. This article demonstrates that these descriptions of Cretan tactics and behaviours are factual, but argues against the idea that they derive from moral deviancy. Rather, they represent the outcome of a different line of historical development than that followed in mainland Greece. Cretan tactics and attitudes stand far closer to those described by archaic poets (especially Homer, Archilochos and Kallinos); in this regard, Cretan city states displayed strong continuities with archaic social practices and values, detectable in other areas of Cretan society and culture. The stability of Cretan sociopolitical organization from the late seventh century down to the Roman conquest fostered the endurance of such practices and attitudes, leading to cultural divergence from mainland Greece and, accordingly, a generally hostile representation of Cretans in our main historiographical sources.