Set Of Vesicles Research Articles

Synthetic Vesicles for Sustainable Energy Recycling and Delivery of Building Blocks for Lipid Biosynthesis†.

ATP is a universal energy currency that is essential for life. l-Arginine degradation via deamination is an elegant way to generate ATP in synthetic cells, which is currently limited by a slow l-arginine/l-ornithine exchange. We are now implementing a new antiporter with better kinetics to obtain faster ATP recycling. We use l-arginine-dependent ATP formation for the continuous synthesis and export of glycerol 3-phosphate by including glycerol kinase and the glycerol 3-phosphate/Pi antiporter. Exported glycerol 3-phosphate serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of phospholipids in a second set of vesicles, which forms the basis for the expansion of the cell membrane. We have therefore developed an out-of-equilibrium metabolic network for ATP recycling, which has been coupled to lipid synthesis. This feeder-utilizer system serves as a proof-of-principle for the systematic buildup of synthetic cells, but the vesicles can also be used to study the individual reaction networks in confinement.

Membrane Structure-Function Insights from Asymmetric Lipid Vesicles.

The lipid bilayer, together with embedded proteins, is the central structure in biomembranes. While artificial lipid bilayers are useful to model natural membranes, they are generally symmetric, with the same membrane lipid composition in each lipid monolayer (leaflet). In contrast, natural membranes are often asymmetric, with different lipids in each leaflet. To prepare asymmetric lipid vesicles, we developed cyclodextrin-catalyzed phospholipid exchange procedures. The basic method is that an excess of vesicles with one set of lipids (the donor vesicles) is mixed with a second set of vesicles (acceptor vesicles) with a different set of lipids. Cyclodextrin is introduced into the external aqueous solution, so that lipids in the outer leaflet of the vesicles bind to it and are shuttled between the vesicles. At equilibrium, the lipids in the outer leaflet of the acceptor vesicles are replaced by those from the donor vesicles. The exchanged acceptor vesicles are then isolated. Asymmetric vesicles are versatile in terms of vesicle sizes and lipid compositions that can be prepared. Measuring asymmetry is often difficult. A variety of assays can be used to measure the extent of asymmetry, but most are specific for one particular membrane lipid type or class, and there are none that can be used in all situations. Studies using asymmetric vesicles have begun to explore how asymmetry influences lipid movement across the bilayer, the formation of ordered lipid domains, coupling between the physical properties in each leaflet, and membrane protein conformation. Lipid domain formation stands out as one of the most important properties in which asymmetry is likely to be crucial. Lipid bilayers can exist in both liquidlike and solid/ordered-like states depending on lipid structure, and in lipid vesicles with a mixture of lipids highly ordered and disordered domains can coexist. However, until very recently, such studies only had been carried out in symmetric artificial membranes. Whether ordered domains (often called lipid rafts) and disordered lipid domains coexist in asymmetric cell membranes remains controversial partly because lipids favoring the formation of an ordered state are largely restricted to the leaflet facing the external environment. Studies using asymmetric vesicles have recently shown that each leaflet can influence the physical behavior of the other, i.e., that the domain forming properties in each leaflet tend to be coupled, with consequences highly dependent upon the details of lipid structure. Future studies investigating the dependence of coupling and properties upon the details of lipid composition should clarify the potential of natural membranes to form lipid domains. In addition, we recently extended the exchange method to living mammalian cells, using exchange to efficiently replace virtually the entire phospholipid and sphingolipid population of the plasma membrane outer leaflet with exogenous lipids without harming cells. This should allow detailed studies of the functional impact of lipid structure, asymmetry, domain organization, and interactions with membrane proteins in living cells.

Lipid Structure and Composition Control Consequences of Interleaflet Coupling in Asymmetric Vesicles

Using Förster resonance energy transfer, raft/liquid-ordered-domain formation was assessed in asymmetric vesicles containing outer leaflets composed of high-Tm (melting temperature) saturated phosphatidylcholines (diC18:0PC, diC16:0PC, diC15:0PC, or diC14:0PC), low-Tm unsaturated dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) and cholesterol, and inner leaflets composed of lipids that by themselves would not form ordered domains (DOPC and cholesterol). Ordered-domain formation in the outer leaflet was compared to that in symmetric vesicles with the same lipid composition as the asymmetric vesicle outer leaflets. The difference between ordered-domain thermal stability in asymmetric and symmetric vesicles was highly dependent on high-Tm PC acyl-chain length. At one extreme, in diC14:0PC-containing asymmetric vesicles, the outer leaflet did not segregate to form ordered domains over the entire experimental temperature range even though ordered domains formed in the symmetric vesicles, indicating the inner leaflet dominated outer-leaflet physical behavior in the asymmetric vesicles. At the other extreme, in diC18:0PC-containing asymmetric vesicles, ordered domains formed over the entire temperature range at which they were present in symmetric vesicles, indicating the inner leaflet did not dominate outer-leaflet physical behavior. DiC15:0PC- and diC16:0PC-containing vesicles exhibited intermediate behaviors. A different set of vesicles was prepared with high-Tm lipid sphingomyelin (SM) in place of saturated phosphatidylcholine, and the % SM was varied. The thermal stability of outer-leaflet ordered domains in asymmetric vesicles was found to decrease more than in symmetric vesicles as SM levels decreased, indicating that the inner leaflet increasingly dominated outer leaflet physical state as SM levels decreased. Overall, inhibition of outer-leaflet ordered-domain formation in asymmetric vesicles by inner-leaflet lipids decreased as the ability of outer-leaflet lipids to form an ordered state by themselves increased, i.e., when outer-leaflet high-Tm lipid content or acyl-chain length increased. This has implications for how ordered-domain formation may be controlled in vivo.

Two-pore channels function in calcium regulation in sea star oocytes and embryos

Egg activation at fertilization is an excellent process for studying calcium regulation. Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide-phosphate (NAADP), a potent calcium messenger, is able to trigger calcium release, likely through two-pore channels (TPCs). Concomitantly, a family of ectocellular enzymes, the ADP-ribosyl cyclases (ARCs), has emerged as being able to change their enzymatic mode from one of nucleotide cyclization in formation of cADPR to a base-exchange reaction in the generation of NAADP. Using sea star oocytes we gain insights into the functions of endogenously expressed TPCs and ARCs in the context of the global calcium signals at fertilization. Three TPCs and one ARC were found in the sea star (Patiria miniata) that were localized in the cortex of the oocytes and eggs. PmTPCs were localized in specialized secretory organelles called cortical granules, and PmARCs accumulated in a different, unknown, set of vesicles, closely apposed to the cortical granules in the egg cortex. Using morpholino knockdown of PmTPCs and PmARC in the oocytes, we found that both calcium regulators are essential for early embryo development, and that knockdown of PmTPCs leads to aberrant construction of the fertilization envelope at fertilization and changes in cortical granule pH. The calcium signals at fertilization are not significantly altered when individual PmTPCs are silenced, but the timing and shape of the cortical flash and calcium wave are slightly changed when the expression of all three PmTPCs is perturbed concomitantly, suggesting a cooperative activity among TPC isoforms in eliciting calcium signals that may influence localized physiological activities.

ChemInform Abstract: Controllable Selectivity of Photosensitized Oxidation of Olefins Included in Vesicles.

Abstract 9,10-Dicyanoanthracene (DCA) sensitized photooxidation of α-pinene, trans -stilbene and trans , trans -1,4-diphenyl-1,3-butadiene in mixed surfactant vesicles was investigated. While the oxidation in homogeneous solution yields the products derived from both the energy transfer and the electron transfer pathways, that within vesicles selectively yields either the singlet oxygen mediated or the superoxide radical anion mediated products depending on the status and location of the substrate and sensitizer molecules in the reaction medium. Upon incorporating the alkene in the bilayer membranes of one set of vesicles and DCA in another set of vesicles, the isolation of the substrate from the sensitizer prevents them from undergoing electron transfer. The singlet oxygen produced in the DCA-containing vesicles diffuses into the alkene-containing vesicles and reacts with the alkene. Thus, only the singlet oxygen oxidation products are obtained, and no product derived from the superoxide radical anion is detected. In contrast, incorporating both the sensitizer and the substrate within the same set of vesicles results in the two dissimilar molecules close to one another in the restricted space of the bilayer membranes of the vesicles. Thus, electron transfer from the alkenes to 1 DCA ∗ is enhanced, and the efficiency of the intersystem crossing from 1 DCA ∗ to 3 DCA ∗ is reduced. The photosensitized oxidation in this case only gives the products derived from the electron transfer pathway. Moreover, the reaction of singlet oxygen with DPB in vesicles results exclusively in the 1,2-cycloaddition products rather than the 1,4-cycloaddition product. This result indicates that the organized semirigid environment in vesicles prevents the olefin molecules from conformational change.

Controllable Selectivity of Photosensitized Oxidation of Olefins Included in Vesicles

9,10-Dicyanoanthracene (DCA) sensitized photooxidation of α-pinene, trans-stilbene and trans, trans-1,4-diphenyl-1,3-butadiene in mixed surfactant vesicles was investigated. While the oxidation in homogeneous solution yields the products derived from both the energy transfer and the electron transfer pathways, that within vesicles selectively yields either the singlet oxygen mediated or the superoxide radical anion mediated products depending on the status and location of the substrate and sensitizer molecules in the reaction medium. Upon incorporating the alkene in the bilayer membranes of one set of vesicles and DCA in another set of vesicles, the isolation of the substrate from the sensitizer prevents them from undergoing electron transfer. The singlet oxygen produced in the DCA-containing vesicles diffuses into the alkene-containing vesicles and reacts with the alkene. Thus, only the singlet oxygen oxidation products are obtained, and no product derived from the superoxide radical anion is detected. In contrast, incorporating both the sensitizer and the substrate within the same set of vesicles results in the two dissimilar molecules close to one another in the restricted space of the bilayer membranes of the vesicles. Thus, electron transfer from the alkenes to 1DCA ∗ is enhanced, and the efficiency of the intersystem crossing from 1DCA ∗ to 3DCA ∗ is reduced. The photosensitized oxidation in this case only gives the products derived from the electron transfer pathway. Moreover, the reaction of singlet oxygen with DPB in vesicles results exclusively in the 1,2-cycloaddition products rather than the 1,4-cycloaddition product. This result indicates that the organized semirigid environment in vesicles prevents the olefin molecules from conformational change.

Peculiarities of ultrastructural organization of the metathoracic ganglion in the locustLocusta migratoria larva

In electron microscopic study of structural organization of the thoracic ganglion of the locust larva of the 1st age (1–2 days after hatching), the data on the structure of motoneurons of the 1st nerve, basal and motor neuropil of the larva were obtained. The effector elements of the larval locust CNS are formed rather early and have the structural plan similar to that in adult insects. However, in the larval motoneurons innervating the flight muscles (longitudinal dorsal muscles, wing depressors) the clearly seen features of immaturity of these nervous elements are revealed. Study of the larval ganglion neuropil has shown that the basal neuropil is morphologically formed sufficiently completely as early as in larvae of the first days after hatching. There are shown longitudinal contacts between axons of the ventral neuropil zone, the presence of axons forming theen-passant contacts as well as the synapses with a heterogeneous set of vesicles in the presynaptic area. The presence of the great number of granular vesicles in the basal neuropil of the locust larva may indicate an important role of catecholamines in the early development of the nervous system in the locust larva.

Reactions of Singlet Oxygen with Olefins and Sterically Hindered Amine in Mixed Surfactant Vesicles

The photosensitized oxidations of the olefins, trans-1,2-dimethoxystilbene (DMOS), trans-stilbene (TS), and trans,trans-1,4-diphenyl-1,3-butadiene (DPB) as well as the amine 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine (TMP) in mixed surfactant vesicles were investigated. The sensitizer was either a hydrophobic dye, tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP), or a cationic dye, methylene blue (MB). The substrate molecules were solubilized in the bilayer membranes of one set of vesicles, and the sensitizers were incorporated in the bilayers or the aqueous inner compartments of another set of vesicles. The irradiation samples were prepared by mixing the above two sets of vesicle dispersions. Photoirradiation of the oxygen-saturated samples resulted in the oxidation of the substrates, as evidenced by the isolation of the end products in the olefin oxidation and by the detection of the ESR spectrum of the nitroxide radical in the amine oxidation. The quantum yields for the product formation were enhanced significantly in D2O dispersions co...

Ultrarapid endocytotic uptake of large molecules inDunaliella species

This paper describes the uptake of Lucifer Yellow carbohydrazide and fluorescent dextrans labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate or Sodium Green (molecular masses ranging from 522 to 2 × 106 Da) byDunaliella spp. halotolerant unicellular green algae isolated from salt pools in the Sinai peninsula. The fluorescent dyes were taken up into a set of vesicles around the nucleus and just above the chloroplast. It proved impossible to inhibit uptake of the fluorescent compounds in cells treated with a large variety of metabolic and other inhibitors. Cell labeling was complete within half a minute of addition of fluorescent compounds to the outside medium; efflux was equally rapid. The results are interpreted in terms of an endocytotic process whereby the outside medium, together with any substance dissolved in it, remains within vesicles enclosed within the cell body but cycles rapidly between the plasma membrane and the interior of the cell. The outside medium does not pass across the vesicular membrane, nor enters the cytosol.

Evidence for a Symmetrical Requirement for Rab5-GTP in in Vitro Endosome-Endosome Fusion

Early endosome fusion, which has been extensively characterized using an in vitro reconstitution assay, is Rab5-dependent. To examine the requirement for Rab5 on both fusion partners, we prepared cytosol and endosomes depleted of Rab5. Unlike control cytosol, Rab5-depleted cytosol was only marginally active in the in vitro endosome fusion. However, fusion could be restored by the addition of wild-type Rab5 or Rab5 D136N, a mutant whose nucleotide specificity favors xanthine over guanine. The addition of Rab5 D136N restored fusion only in the presence of XTP. In the absence of XTP or in the presence of XDP, Rab5 D136N failed to restore fusion. When fusion was carried out with endosomal vesicles depleted of Rab GTPases (by preincubation of vesicles with GDP dissociation inhibitor), together with cytosol immunodepleted of Rab5, fusion was virtually absent. We then used immunodepleted cytosol and GDP dissociation inhibitor-treated vesicles to determine whether Rab5 is required by both fusion partners. Using separate sets of endosomal vesicles, we found that priming both sets of Rab5-depleted vesicles with Rab5 Q79L, a GTPase-defective mutant, substantially stimulated endosome fusion. Priming one set of vesicles with Rab5 Q79L and a second set of vesicles with Rab5 S34N failed to activate fusion. When both sets of Rab5-depleted vesicles were primed with Rab5 D136N supplemented with XTP, endosome fusion was stimulated, similar to that observed with Rab5 Q79L. However, when one set of vesicles was preincubated with Rab5 D136N plus XTP and the second set with Rab5 D136N and XDP, no stimulation of fusion was observed. We conclude that Rab5-GTP is required on both fusion partners for docking and fusion of early endosomes. To confirm the fusion of Rab5-GTP-positive vesicles in vivo, we expressed GFP-Rab5 Q79L in fibroblasts and observed fusion of Rab5-positive vesicles. We failed to record fusion of Rab5-positive vesicles with Rab5-negative vesicles. We conclude that Rab5-GTP is required on both sets of endosomes for fusion in vitro and in living cells.

Singlet oxygen and electron-transfer in photooxidations

9,10-Dicyanoanthracene (DCA) sensitized photooxidation of α-pinene, trans-stilbene and trans,trans-1,4-diphenyl-1,3-butadiene in mixed surfactant vesicles was investigated. While the oxidation in homogeneous solution yields the products derived from both the energy transfer and the electron transfer pathways, that within vesicles selectively yields either the singlet oxygen mediated or the superoxide radical anion mediated products depending on the status and location of the substrate and sensitizer molecules in the reaction medium. Upon incorporating the alkene in the bilayer membranes of one set of vesicles and DCA in another set of vesicles, the isolation of the substrate from the sensitizer prevents them from undergoing electron transfer. The singlet oxygen produced in the DCA-containing vesicles diffuses into the alkene-containing vesicles and reacts with the alkene. Thus, only the singlet oxygen oxidation products are obtained, and no product derived from the superoxide radical anion is detected. In contrast, incorporating both the sensitizer and the substrate within the same set of vesicles results in the two dissimilar molecules close to one another in the restricted space of the bilayer membranes of the vesicles. Thus, electron transfer from the alkenes to 1DCA∗ is enhanced, and the efficiency of the intersystem crossing from 1DCA∗ to 3DCA∗ is reduced. The photosensitized oxidation in this case only gives the products derived from the electron transfer pathway. Moreover, the reaction of singlet oxygen with DPB in vesicles results exclusively in the 1,2-cycloaddition products rather than the 1,4-cycloaddition product. This result indicates that the organized semirigid environment in vesicles prevents the olefin molecules from conformational change.

A fluorescence assay to monitor vesicle fusion and lysis.

An assay based on the fluorescent compound 2',7'-([bis(carboxymethyl)amino]methyl) fluorescein (calcein) has been developed to investigate vesicle fusion and lysis. The assay involves encapsulating the nonfluorescent Co2+ complex of calcein in one set of vesicles and EDTA in a second set. If fusion occurs, EDTA chelates Co2+, releasing calcein which may be assayed by means of its intense fluorescence. Leakage of either component of the reaction can be directly quantitated by titrating the external medium with the other component. This assay was used to investigate the effects of calcium ion on small phosphatidylserine vesicles, a system reported to undergo fusion. It revealed immediate and extensive leakage of the encapsulated contents; membrane fusion must, therefore, be simultaneously with or subsequent to, loss of vesicle integrity. This assay is convenient and flexible; it should be useful in a variety of investigations of membrane-bounded compartments.

Effects of divalent ions on vesicle-vesicle fusion studied by a new luminescence assay for fusion

Summary. A new assay has been developed for vesicle-vesicle fusion based upon the mixing of intravesicular contents of two sets of vesicles. Purified firefly luciferase and MgC12 were incorporated into one set of vesicles (LV) and ATP into the other (AV). Vesicles were prepared from soybean phospholipids. The luminescence that resulted from hydrolysis of ATP by luciferase was measured to determine the extent of mixing of the intravesicular contents. In the absence of divalent ions, incubation of a mixture of LV and AV did not produce luminescence. However, if Ca + § or other divalent ions were present at miltimolar concentrations, luminescence occurred. The luminescence did not result from extravesicular reaction of vesicle contents that had leaked into the medium. Instead, luminescence resulted from the mixing of intravesicular spaces of AV and LV in fused vesicles. Optical density changes and negative stain electron microscopy indicated that Ca § + induced extensive aggregation of vesicles. However, quantitation of the maximum possible luminescence indicates that only a small percentage (less than 1%) of the vesicles actually fused in a fusion experiment. Addition of EDTA to chelate Ca ++ after luminescence had been induced resulted in a two- to threefold increase in light emission which then rapidly decayed. These results suggest that the sudden removal of Ca § § caused a transient increase in fusion after which subsequent fusion was inhibited. It was also found that the vesicles were relatively stable to hypotonic solutions.