Set-aside Land Research Articles

Water Quality Modeling for the Raccoon River Watershed Using SWAT

The Raccoon River watershed (RRW) in west-central Iowa has been recognized as exporting some of the highest nitrate-nitrogen loadings in the U.S. and is a major source of sediment and other nutrient loadings. An integrated modeling framework has been constructed for the 9,400 km2 RRW that consists of the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model, the interactive SWAT (i_SWAT) software package, the Load Estimator (LOADEST) computer program, and other supporting software and databases. The simulation framework includes detailed land use and management data, such as different crop rotations, and an array of nutrient and tillage management schemes, derived from the USDA National Resources Inventory (NRI) databases and other sources. This article presents the calibration and validation of SWAT for the streamflow, sediment losses, and nutrient loadings in the watershed, and an assessment of land use and management practice shifts in controlling pollution. Streamflow, sediment yield, and nitrate loadings were calibrated for the period 1981-1992 and validated for the period 1993-2003. Limited field data on organic nitrogen, organic phosphorus, and mineral phosphorus allowed model validation for the period 2001-2003. Model predictions generally performed very well on both an annual and monthly basis during the calibration and validation periods, as indicated by R2 and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (E) values that exceeded 0.7 in most cases. A set of land use change scenarios depicting conversion of cropland into land set-aside resulted in large reductions of sediment yield at the watershed outlet. A second scenario set found that reductions in nutrient applications of 10% to 20% resulted in similar predicted percentage reductions in nitrate loadings at the watershed outlet and in corresponding corn yield reductions of 3% to 6%.

The potential for hydrogen-enriched biogas production from crops: Scenarios in the UK

There is increasing international interest in developing low carbon technologies to provide hydrogen renewably. Hydrogen can be produced through dark anaerobic fermentation using carbohydrate-rich substrates, and methane can be produced in a methanogenic second stage. The suitability of a range of crops for hydrogen and methane production in the UK is examined, using selection criteria including yield, harvest window and composition of the crops. The annual potential for hydrogen and methane production is calculated using the selected crops, taking into account the energy required to grow and harvest the biomass and run the process. The fermentable energy crops fodder beet, forage maize, sugar beet and rye grass were identified as the most suitable substrates for this farm-scale process. A conservative estimate of the amount of agricultural land in the UK excluding permanent grassland not already used for food production or energy crops (currently unused set-aside land) has been made (294,960 ha). If this was used to grow a rotation of the selected crops, 9.6 TW h net energy could be produced per year. This equates to electrical power for 2.2 million homes in the UK annually and a reduction of CO2 emissions by over 2.3 million tones per annum in the UK.

Applying nature's design: corridors as a strategy for biodiversity conservation

The fragmenting of habitats is endangering animal populations and degrading or destroying many plant populations throughout the world. To address this problem, conservationists have increasingly turned to biological corridors, areas of land set aside to facilitate the movement of species and ecological processes. However, while hundreds of corridor initiatives are under way worldwide, there is little practical information to guide their design, location, and management. Applying Nature's Design offers a comprehensive overview of current knowledge on corridors, their design, and their implementation. Anthony B. Anderson and Clinton N. Jenkins examine a variety of conceptual and practical issues associated with corridors and provide detailed case studies from around the world. Their work considers how to manage and govern corridors, how to build support among various interest groups for corridors, and the obstacles to implementation. In addition to assessing various environmental and ecological challenges, the authors are the first to consider the importance of socioeconomic and political issues in creating and maintaining corridors.

Modelling the impact of land cover changes in the Czech Republic on sediment delivery

At present large collective fields in the Czech Republic are being split up into smaller spatial units. Moreover, a large number of former state farms are abandoned, resulting in an increase of the area of set-aside land. Between 1990 and 2000 the area of pasture land in the Czech Republic increased 150%. The ongoing landscape dynamics has a significant impact on soil erosion and sediment delivery to rivers and reservoirs. In some cases sedimentation records in retention ponds at the outlet of rural drainage basins show a 75% decrease of the mean annual sediment export since 1990. It may be expected that the EU enlargement will be a significant driver for future land cover change in Central and Eastern Europe. In this paper some possible land cover change scenarios for rural areas in the Czech Republic were considered. Next, these scenarios were used as an input for a spatially distributed sediment delivery model in order to evaluate their impact on soil erosion and sediment delivery. The results show that the spatial pattern of land cover change seems to be more important than the percentage of land cover change, which encourages the development and application of spatially explicit land cover change models.

Changes in Nutrient Loading in an Agricultural Watershed and Its Effects on Water Quality and Stream Biota

Non-point-sources of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are recognized as major causes of eutrophication of surface waters. Adoption of policies to reduce pollution in the former German Democratic Republic following re-unification of Germany in 1990 provided an opportunity to examine how taking agricultural land out of production affected nutrient loads and aquatic biota in a small rural watershed. Between 1994 and 1996, soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) loads in a first-order agricultural stream decreased by >90% while instream concentrations decreased by 89% for DIN and 40% for SRP. This reduction in nutrients coincided with a decrease in precipitation (from 760 to 440 mm between 1994 and 1996) and an increase in the area of land set aside from agricultural production (from 0.3% in 1990 to a maximum of 8% in 1994). The biomass of primary producers (episammic algae) showed no clear response to this decrease in nutrient concentrations. However, benthic invertebrate composition shifted from a chironomid–amphipod to an oligochaete–gastropod dominated community in response to the decrease in DIN and changes in episammic algal abundance and sediment organic carbon concentrations. Results from our 4-year study showed reductions in soil nutrient losses combined with less precipitation resulted in less P and N in a rural stream and a change in benthic invertebrate community composition and abundance.

The role of NTFPs in a shifting cultivation system in transition: A village case study from the uplands of North Central Vietnam

Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography 106(2): 103–114, 2006 Periods characterized by agricultural change and transitions are often associated with insecurity and vulnerability regarding food production and food supplies. Forests and forest products tend to play an important buffer role during the process of change and uncertainty, where forest and fallows provide food products or income that people can temporarily fall back on. In the upland village of Que in North Central Vietnam, several different drivers are currently changing land use and land cover. The Forest Land Allocation policy, implemented in 1998, is one of the major driving forces, allocating farmers a reduced area of land for shifting cultivation in order to prevent any further deforestation and land degradation. However, the reduction in agricultural land set aside for shifting cultivation has lead to a severe decrease in hill rice production. The land use system is in a transition phase—from a conventional shifting cultivation system to a composite swiddening system. The area under shifting cultivation has been reduced, and the system has been intensified via the introduction of paddy rice cultivation, increased livestock rearing and commercial exploitation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Yet, the current transformation of the system has resulted in a drastic reduction in overall rice production. Thus, the collection and selling of NTFPs such as bamboo shoots, broom grass and pherynium leaves seem to prevent severe shortage of food since farmers are able to purchase food products with the money generated from the selling of NTFPs.

Incorporating Green-area User Groups in Urban Ecosystem Management

We analyze the role of urban green areas managed by local user groups in their potential for supporting biodiversity and ecosystem services in growing city-regions, with focus on allotment areas, domestic gardens, and golf courses. Using Stockholm, Sweden, as an example cityregion, we compile GIS data of its spatial characteristics and relate these data to GIS data for protected areas and "green wedges" prioritized in biodiversity conservation. Results reveal that the three land uses cover 18% of the studied land area of metropolitan Stockholm, which corresponds to more than twice the land set aside as protected areas. We review the literature to identify ecosystem functions and services provided by the three green areas and discuss their potential in urban ecosystem management. We conclude that the incorporation of locally managed lands, and their stewards and institutions, into comanagement designs holds potential for improving conditions for urban biodiversity, reducing transaction costs in ecosystem management, and realizing local Agenda 21.

Pilot plant studies of biodiesel production using Brassicacarinata as raw material

In recent years, the development of alternative fuels from renewable resources, like biomass, has received considerable attention. Biodiesel is defined as fatty acid methyl or ethyl esters from vegetable oils, when it is used as fuel in diesel engines and heating systems. In this context, the cultivation of Brassica carinata as oilseed crop for biodiesel production in the south of Europe (Spain and Italy) and north of Africa has gained special interest, since it allows the use of set-aside lands, giving higher yields per hectare than the traditional Spanish crops. Methyl or ethyl esters are the product of transesterification of vegetable oils with alcohol (methanol/ethanol) using an alkaline catalyst. In addition, the process yields glycerol, which has large applications in the pharmaceutical, food and plastics industries. In the present work, the process of biodiesel production for pilot plant using B. Carinata oil as raw materials with methanol and using potassium hydroxide as catalyst has been studied. The biodiesel quality meets European specifications defined by pr EN 14214:2002 (E). The obtained results have been used for industrial scale up of the process.

Effects of Set‐Aside Land on Farmland Biodiversity: Comments on Van Buskirk and Willi

Worldwide, wildlife in agricultural landscapes is experiencing significant declines in range and population size (e.g., Donald et al. 2001). In the past century, expansion and intensification of agriculture have resulted in spectacular increases in crop yields but have also resulted in habitat destruction, making agricultural landscapes increasingly hostile to farmland wildlife. In Europe and the United States both consequences of modern agriculture have resulted in policy responses. Set-aside schemes have been introduced, initially in attempts to reduce overproduction and the soaring costs of price support and storage, but later also for biodiversity conservation aims (Ervin 1992; Floyd 1992). In Europe agri-environment schemes were initiated with the specific aim of counteracting negative effects of modern agriculture on the environment. In the long run the significant expenditures associated with these schemes can be justified only if scientific evaluations indicate that their objectives are being met (Pullin & Knight 2000). Van Buskirk and Willi (2004) evaluated the biodiversity benefits of set-aside land in North America and Europe with a meta-analysis approach. They present clear, overall biodiversity increases and found positive relationships between biodiversity and age and area of set-aside land. Based on these results, they conclude that agrienvironmental policies are effective and recommend that greater amounts of land should be set aside regionally in Europe and North America to maximize biodiversity benefits. We think that the design and geographic distribution of the study of Van Buskirk and Willi were inadequate for studying the ecological benefits of agri-environmental

Biofuels for Transport in the Uk: What is Feasible?: Review/Commentary Article

Recent claims about the potential of UK land to support significant biofuels production for transport are bold, if not surprising. British renewable energy policy appears to be focussed on electricity production, at the expense of the heat and transport sectors. However there are environmental and strategic reasons for reducing the carbon intensity of UK road transport. This paper reviews past and recent studies of the feasibility of liquid biofuels production in Britain. Many earlier studies may have underestimated this potential, and the policy context has shifted significantly, but it would still be difficult to meet current UK gasoline needs from arable and set-aside land. In conclusion, a realistic short-term goal may be 2–3% of UK transport fuel needs from domestic resources by 2010.

Biofuels and other approaches for decreasing fossil fuel emissions from agriculture

Summary Biofuels offer one method for decreasing emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from fossil fuels, thus helping to meet UK and EU targets for mitigating climate change. They also provide a rational option for land use within the EU that could be economically viable, provided that an appropriate financial and policy environment is developed. If 80% of current set-aside land in the UK were used for production of biomass crops for electricity generation, about 3% of current UK electricity demand could be met from this source. Considering possibilities for increasing yields and land area devoted to such crops over the coming decades, this could possibly rise to 12%. These estimates exclude consideration of developments in electricity generation which should increase the efficiency of conversion. Also, the use of combined heat and power units at local level (e.g. on farms or in rural communities) gives additional energy saving. Dedicated biomass crops such as willow, poplar, miscanthus, switchgrass or reed canary grass are perennials: in comparison with annual arable crops they would be expected to deliver additional environmental benefits. The elimination of annual cultivation should give a more stable environment, beneficial for farmland biodiversity. Some increase in soil organic matter content is likely, leading to some sequestration of carbon in soil and long-term improvements in soil quality. The impact on water quality may be positive as nitrate losses are small and a similar trend is expected for phosphate and pesticides. However, these crops may well use more water than arable crops so their impact on water resources could be negative – an issue for further research. Agricultural land can also be used to produce liquid fuels for use in transport. At present biodiesel can be produced from oilseed rape and ethanol from either sucrose in sugar beet or cellulose from virtually any plant material. In the short-term, liquid biofuels are an easy option as they require little change to either agriculture or transport infrastructure. However, their benefits for CO2 emissions are much less than for biomass used for generating electricity. It is therefore necessary to debate the priorities for land use in this context.

Impacts of set-aside policy on the risk of soil erosion in central Spain

The 1992 European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) set-aside program led to an increase in area of set-aside land after 1992, but had a varying effect on soil erosion rates because of the different climatic, environmental and economic conditions of European agricultural regions. This study presents new data on the CAP implications for land use and management on subsidized-dependent agricultural zones of central Spain. The focus is on how this land change has impacted the soil erosion risk since 1992. In many parts of cereal-growing central Spain, with Mediterranean continental climate, set-aside land management is managed as unseeded fallow, a management type used to increase soil moisture and fertility for subsequent rotations. Unseeded fallow land management has also been related to increased susceptibility to soil erosion. In order to quantify the effects CAP reform policies have had on erosion rates, land changes from 1991 to 1998 were used to calculate annual rates of erosion susceptibility using the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) in a geographic information systems (GIS) environment within a study watershed. Additional land use scenarios were simulated to estimate the effects fallow land modification would have on erosion risk. The results show the increase in unseeded fallow land management, due to the 1992 EU policy, led to an increase in the amount of land in high erosion risk categories. Although the increase in set-aside land due to the CAP has resulted in less area vulnerable to soil erosion in some regions of Europe, the agricultural regions of central Spain have experienced the opposite.

CURRENT AFFORESTATION PRACTICE AND EXPECTED TRENDS ON FAMILY FARMS IN WEST HUNGARY

The primary aim of the National Forest Strategy and National Development Plan in Hungary is to increase the ratio of forest cover from the current level of 19,7% to 26-28%. This means planting 700,000 ha of new forest plantation in Hungary between now and 2035. Around 90% of the afforestation1 will occur on private land. So the simultaneous improvement of farming and forestry is critical. Our survey sought to capture the current situation in western Hungary. Our aim was to research the possibilities for complimentary development of agriculture and forestry on family owned farms. Relatedly, we wanted to know about the motivations of farmers regarding afforestation. We established that forestry does not have a favorable effect on the labour effi ciency of agriculture and does not reduce the seasonality of agriculture. Most of the farmers consider afforestation could be a good investment or a potential source of better profi t. However, the level of support available is what mainly motivates willingness to plant tree crops. They believe that the government should compensate short-term profi t loss (due to land set aside for tree crops) with longer-term subsidies (according to established EU support practices)

Ethnobotanical and Floristic Research in Belize: Accomplishments, challenges and lessons learned

Ethnobotanical and floristic research in Belize was con- ducted through the Belize Ethnobotany Project which was launched in 1988 as a multi-disciplinary effort of a number of individuals and institutions in Belize and internationally. The objectives of the project were the preservation of cul- tural and traditional knowledge, natural products research (through the National Cancer Institute), technology trans- fer, institutional strengthening and student training. This paper discusses the implementation of the project com- ponents, highlighting its accomplishments, challenges and lessons learned. A checklist of the flora has been pro- duced, and includes 3,408 native and cultivated species found in Belize. The multiple use curve is introduced as a way of determining the most appropriate sample size for ethnobotanical interviews/collections. Valuation studies of medicinal plants found in two areas of local forest are de- scribed, and compared with values of traditional uses for farming, using a net present value analysis. Studies on the ecology, propagation and sustainable levels of harvest of medicinal plants were also initiated in Belize. Our expe- rience with the production of a traditional healer’s manual is detailed, and we describe details on the benefit-sharing approach utilized to recognize intellectual property that it contains. Various local efforts at developing forest-based traditional medicine products are described, as is the nat- ural products research and teaching program based on Belizean plants. The authors will relate an example of how negative events can be transformed to have positive re- sults. Specifically, in the case of conflict over the man- agement of the region’s first ethnobiomedical reserve, two competing groups claimed responsibility for its manage- ment. However, the conflict was eventually resolved and resulted in two such reserves being established, together representing over 50,000 acres of land set aside for con- servation and use by traditional healers. The perspective of local participants and communities will also be present- ed, including a short video presentation.

Management of plant communities on set-aside land and its effects on earthworm communities

Plant communities of set-aside agricultural land in a European project were managed in order to enhance plant succession towards weed-resistant, mid-successional grassland. Here, we ask if the management of a plant community affects the earthworm community. Field experiments were established in four countries, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the Czech Republic. High (15 plant species) and low diversity (four plant species) seed mixtures were sown as management practice, with natural colonization as control treatment in a randomized block design. The response of the earthworms to the management was studied after three summers since establishment of the sites. Samples were also taken from plots with continued agricultural practices included in the experimental design and from a site with a late successional plant community representing the target plant community. The numbers and biomass of individuals were higher in the set-aside plots than in the agricultural treatment in two countries out of four. The numbers of individuals at one site (The Netherlands) was higher in the naturally colonized plots than in the sowing treatments, otherwise there were no differences between the treatments. Species diversity was lower in the agricultural plots in one country. The species composition had changed from the initial community of the agricultural field, but was still different from a late successional target community. The worm biomass was positively related to legume biomass in Sweden and to grass biomass in the UK.

Quantifying geomorphological heterogeneity to assess species diversity of set-aside arable land

The relationship between geomorphological habitat heterogeneity and species diversity was investigated on set-aside areas in arable land. The species assemblage of the studied set-aside areas had to be aggregated to groups of similar ecological behavior and indices of species diversity. Different methods of quantifying geomorphological habitat heterogeneity were tested, the relationship being investigated through regression and redundancy analysis. Two different sets of geomorphological data were used, one derived from already existing data bases like a digital elevation model and soil maps, the other also containing results from an investigation of the habitats. Significant relationships were found at different levels of data aggregation allowing for species diversity to be assessed based on geomorphological habitat heterogeneity.

Succession changes of temporary grass stands on set-aside land

The mixtures of <i>Bromus marginatus</i> Nees ex Steud. + Coronilla varia L., Festuca pratensis L. + Lotus corniculatus L., Dactylis aschersoniana Graebn. + Trifolium repens L., Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) P. Beauv. ex J.S. et K.B. Presl + Medicago lupulina L. were sown in rows of 125 mm in the year 1997 in Prague (chernozem, altitude 281 m a.s.l., average precipitation is 472 mm per year, average year temperature 9.3°C). The stands were one or three times per year cut with the mass removing or one or two times mulched. Botanical composition (by weight method), number of present species and agrobotanical groups (grasses, legumes, other dicotyledonous) coverage were measured during 6 years of vegetation. The species number was highest on plots cut 3 times (6–17), it increased linearly. The sown species share in the dry mass yield was 75–99% and the share of grasses decreased linearly with time. The significantly highest dry mass yield was reached when mulched two times per year Bromus marginatus Nees ex Steud. with Coronilla varia L. (till 14 t/ha ). The stands coverage was 43–80%.

An Environmental Domain Classification of New Zealand and Its Use as a Tool for Biodiversity Management

Abstract: Successful biodiversity management, including the selection and subsequent management of protected areas, depends in large measure on classifications showing land areas with similar ecosystem character. In contrast to widely used, qualitative land‐classification techniques, we used a numerical classification of explicit spatial layers describing aspects of New Zealand's climate and landforms. We chose input variables for their strong functional links with major physiological processes of trees and high statistical correlations with geographic distributions of individual tree species as determined from previous studies. Higher‐level divisions of the resulting classification were dominated by macroclimatic variation associated with change in both latitude and orographic protection provided by New Zealand's main mountain ranges, but variation in landform became more important at finer scales of classification. Classification units showed marked variation in the proportional extent of both indigenous vegetation cover and land set aside for conservation purposes. Indigenous ecosystem remnants of the highest priority for increased protection occurred in warm, lowland domains, particularly in drier environments, where both indigenous cover and protected areas are of minimal geographic extent. Such results underline the considerable potential of an environmental classification to provide a landscape context for systematic conservation management, particularly in environments where the natural ecosystem pattern has been severely modified by human activity.

Optimization of Alkali-Catalyzed Transesterification of Brassica Carinata Oil for Biodiesel Production

Environmental concerns are driving industry to develop viable alternative fuels from renewable resources. On the other hand, to reduce food surplus, the Agricultural Policy of the European Union (EU) obliges the European farmers to leave a percentage of the arable land as set-aside, where can be grown, as an exception, vegetables for nonfood purposes, i.e., energetic ones. Currently, fossil fuels are used in diesel engines and are essential in industrialized places. In addition, petroleum-based diesel increases environmental pollution. To solve these problems, transesterified vegetable oil that has been grown in set-aside lands can be considered to be a renewable energy resource. In this sense, this work describes the optimization of the parameters involved in the transesterification process of Brassica carinata oil. Gas chromatography was used to determine the fatty acid composition of Brassica carinata oil and its esters. Results revealed that the free fatty acid content is a notorious parameter to dete...

Brazil tests world's largest environmental monitoring system

An elaborate environmental monitoring system paid for by Brazil, Sivam was built by the US defense electronics contractor Raytheon Co. (Lexington, Mass.) and two Brazilian outfits, Embraer (Sao Jose dos Campos) and Atech (Sao Paulo)-the former an aeronautics company that has supplied planes for Sivam, the latter the Brazilian system integrator. The US $1.4 billion system pulls together information from over 500 monitoring devices, ranging from satellites to weather balloons covering 5.2 million km <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> of the Amazon. System headquarters are going up in Brasilia, the nation's capital, and final system tests on the integration of all the network's components are scheduled to begin in October or November, 2003. Sivam is being used to detect illegal logging in Brazil, but can also be used to monitor fires, floods, pollution, weather, and-not least-the status of land set aside for indigenous peoples. The idea is to feed a constant flow of critically important data to scientists and to public authorities responsible for regulating the development and protection of the rain forest that covers 61 percent of Brazil.