Serial Position Effects Research Articles

A Comparison of Serial Position Effects in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment due to Parkinson’s Disease or to Alzheimer’s Disease

Objective: The first (primacy region) and last (recency region) items of a word list are generally better memorized than items from the middle region. The recency effect depends on short-term memory (STM) and the primacy effect on long-term memory (LTM), where verbal information is transferred from STM into LTM by maintenance rehearsal. We compared the serial position effects (SPE) between patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to Parkinson’s disease (PD), i.e., PD-MCI, and patients with MCI due to Alzheimer’s disease (AD-MCI), and evaluated the influence of SPE and frontostriatal deficits on verbal memory recall. Methods: Four similar groups of subjects participated in the study: 26 PD-MCI patients, 26 cognitively normal patients with PD (PD-CN), 26 AD-MCI patients, and 26 normal controls (NC). Verbal episodic memory, verbal span, attentional capacity, executive functions, and verbal working memory performance were assessed. Measures for primacy and recency regions were defined at the first trial of a 16-items word list. Hierarchical regression models were used to investigate the contribution of frontostriatal deficits beyond SPE on verbal memory recall performance (“long-delay free recall”) in PD and AD patients. Results: Primacy effects were significantly diminished in both PD-MCI and AD-MCI patients relative to NC and PD-CN (all p < 0.01). Compared to PD-MCI patients, AD-MCI patients exhibited significantly worse “delayed-recall ‘savings’.” Reduced primacy effect was predictive for decreased recall performance in PD and AD. The conducted hierarchical regression model revealed that in PD, but not in AD patients, performance of attention and executive function significantly increased the prediction of free recalled words. Conclusions: Reduced recall performance is likely due to impaired transition of newly learned material from STM into LTM in AD and in PD. Whereas AD-MCI patients suffer from a storage deficit, the similarly reduced recall performance found in patients with PD-MCI may additionally be related to deficient attentional and executive capacity.

Screen position effects on task performance in a delayed match to sample task

Studies of working memory have used immediate and delayed recall of lists of items. Serial position effects are the phenomena where items at the beginning and end of a studied list are recalled differentially from items in the middle of the list. In matching versions of the task, study items may be presented serially or simultaneously in a grid. After a delay a single probe item is presented for which the participant determines whether or not it was in the study set. The effects of the position of an item when studied on a screen are currently not well understood and are the focus of the current work. Findings from a delayed match to sample task in 49 healthy young adults with 1 to 9 items presented in a 3 by 3 grid, demonstrate that the column of the studied items affect response time and accuracy. The effects of position on accuracy also significantly interact with task demands. The importance of screen position effects is demonstrated with simulations using the mean accuracies split by task demands and screen locations. Simulations demonstrate the possible range of accuracies based on screen effects when the number of trials presented to an individual is less than 20 for each task demand. This has important implications when a small number of trials are administered using randomly generated stimuli which is often the case in neuroimaging studies where tasks are delivered under constrained time limits.

Serial position effects on list learning tasks in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.

Serial position effects (SPEs) on list learning tasks refer to the relationship between a word's placement on the list and its likelihood of being recalled. Typically, adults recall more words from the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of the list compared to the middle of the list. These effects can be affected by neurological disease such that SPEs have been shown to be related to both current and future cognitive decline. This review aimed to summarize existing research on SPEs in individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). A systematic review of SPEs in MCI and AD was conducted. Despite inconsistencies in the number of items included on word list tasks analyzing SPEs and inconsistencies in how researchers have defined and analyzed SPEs, SPEs have demonstrated the ability to predict future cognitive decline, at times above and beyond traditional memory score performance. In addition, individuals with MCI and AD show similar SPE patterns of reduced primacy and intact recency, with primacy being more reduced in AD, whereas individuals with vascular dementia demonstrate a reversed SPE pattern. The analysis of SPEs has demonstrated some utility as a marker of cognitive impairment associated with MCI, AD, and other dementias; however, research is limited by the multiple ways in which SPEs are defined and analyzed. Future research is discussed, including the need for increased data accessibility in order to quantitatively summarize previous research on SPEs in relation to MCI and AD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

How people vote in contests: new findings from Immortal Songs 2

Many important contests, such as job interviews and political debates, are presented in sequential order. Previous studies found serial position effects such that the later presenter has a higher probability of winning. However, no previous studies use both random assignments of contestants and a large number of contestants and judges. We use Immortal Songs 2, a popular TV program that satisfies both conditions, to confirm the findings of serial position effects. In addition, Immortal Songs 2 has round-by-round competition rules. The first round is a competition between the first and second contestants. Then, the winner of the first round is announced. The second round is a contest between the winner of the first round and the third contestant. As the rounds continue, in theory, the winner of the previous round should have a higher probability of winning; however, in fact, the second contestant’s probability of winning is always 0.5.

Examining the factor structure of the Rey auditory verbal learning test in individuals across the life span

ABSTRACTObjective: Previous studies analyzing the factor structure of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) have been limited in the number of scores included in the analysis. Often, they lacked inclusion of process scores that have been shown to add predictive value in identifying future cognitive decline. Therefore, the goal of the current study was to determine the factor structure of the RAVLT utilizing factor scores including serial position effects, repetitions, and intrusion errors, and to examine if the factor structure for older adults is similar to that found in the entire lifespan sample.Method: Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on 718 participants (age 16–85 years) from the Nathan Kline Institute (NKI)-Rockland project. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) of a reduced model of the EFA was conducted on the entire sample and an older (ages 55–85 years; n = 265) and a younger (less than 55 years of age; n = 453) subsample.Results: EFA indicated three factors: Memory, Attention/Learning, and Inaccurate Memory (i.e., repetitions and intrusions). CFA of a reduced model indicated adequate fit in the entire sample and older subsample, and good fit in the younger subsample.Conclusion: The present study examined the factor structure of the RAVLT in a large lifespan sample utilizing a larger set of RAVLT scores than have been examined in prior studies, including total scores and process scores. The same factors were identified in the entire lifespan sample and the younger and older adult subsamples, although similar to previous studies, measures of model fit were less robust in the older adult subsample. These results provide additional support for the error scores (e.g., intrusions and repetitions) as separable from other aspects of learning and memory.

Skilled readers show different serial-position effects for letter versus non-letter target detection in mixed-material strings

The study explored whether target detection in a five-character string depends on whether a letter or a non-letter was presented, as a predesignated target. Skilled readers had to identify a single letter or non-letter in a five-character string, randomly composed of letters and non-letters. It was found that an analytic processing strategy is automatically elicited if participants were instructed to detect a letter target. In this instance, a linear model best explained the RT variance for letters: with increasing RTs from left to right, suggesting a serial item-by-item reading-specific strategy comparable to alphabetic reading. For non-letters, in contrast, a symmetrical U-shaped function best explained the RT variance, suggesting a symmetrical scanning-out from the central to the terminal positions of the string. Since the design precludes orthographic and semantic influences, it can be concluded that a reading-specific strategy for alphabetic processing is automatically activated if the string is scanned for a letter-target. Thus, the pre-designated target triggers the strategy for processing the string and determines related position effects. The results suggest that effects from earlier studies, which showed an analytic processing preference for isolated letters (APPLE) in recognition tasks, as a consequence of literacy acquisition, generalize to the processing of letters in strings.

Select, then decide: Further evidence for separable selection and decision processes in short-term visual recognition

ABSTRACT Recently, researchers have used evidence-accumulation models to analyse how performance in visual working memory (WM) tasks depends on both decision-making and non-decisional processes. One resulting claim is that selection of representations into the focus of attention and decision-making about those representations are separable processes, that this selection is facilitated by informative retro-cues, and that this process is evident in non-decision time when data are fit with a diffusion model. I attempted to address an alternative account of retro-cue effects on non-decision time: that they result from reduced uncertainty about non-memorial aspects of the task. In two 2AFC recognition experiments with retro-cues, participants had to choose between two probes – whose similarity to one another varied across conditions – to indicate which matched an item presented at a specified location in a sequentially-presented visual memory array. Crucially, the task minimized differences in uncertainty between the cue and no-cue conditions. Modelling showed a robust retro-cue effect in non-decision time, consistent with the advanced selection account of the retro-cue effect. Additionally, there were serial position and similarity effects, mostly evident on drift rate. These results support the contention that selection into the focus of attention is a separate process which facilitates stimulus use in decision-making.

颜色对词汇记忆的影响：基于系列位置效应

颜色对词汇记忆的影响：基于系列位置效应

Putting it in Neutral: How the Sequence, Severity, and Sincerity of Information Presentation Affects Student Opinions

This Article presents the findings of a study designed to measure how variations in the way college professors present information can affect students’ interpretation of the information. The topic analyzed involves two competing theories of constitutional interpretation, originalism and living constitutionalism. Variations on how the information was presented include informing the student which theory typically aligns with which political party, making salient the student’s political philosophy, including a short argument in favor of each position and altering the sequence in which they appear, and informing the student as to which theory the professor allegedly prefers. These changes resulted in stark differences in which theory of constitutional interpretation the student elected to support. This is consistent with existing literature on cognitive biases, such as anchoring and the serial-position effect. The results of this study serve as a valuable reminder to professors of the significance of how they present information as it pertains to biasing student beliefs. This Article also addresses effective strategies that can be implemented to minimize the anchoring effect and create a more neutral and conducive learning environment. Cognitive anchoring can also be utilized as a highly engaging topic for class discussion. Students educated on the wide-reaching effects of cognitive anchoring will be better equipped to acquire better outcomes in their academic, professional, and personal lives. This article provides pedagogical best practices for how to present the topic in a Legal Environment of Business course, as well as an interactive classroom activity to spark interest in the subject among students.

Supplemental Material for Serial Position Effects on List Learning Tasks in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease

Supplemental Material for Serial Position Effects on List Learning Tasks in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease

How to say no in recognition tests of visual working memory: Testing unidimensional and two-dimensional models with continuous or discrete memory states.

We constructed 4 working memory recognition models to predict behavior in the local recognition task (also called change detection), in which both content (e.g., color) and context (e.g., location) information are necessary to make correct recognition decisions. The theoretical assumptions incorporated in the models come from crossing 2 contrasts: One is the contrast between discrete-state models with continuous-strength models. The other contrast pertains to the dimensionality of information involved in the recognition process: either unidimensional (as in single-process recognition models) or two-dimensional (as in dual-process models). We compared the models to data from three local-recognition experiments using sequentially presented visual materials. All three experiments revealed intrusion costs (i.e., higher false alarms to probes matching a list element in the wrong context than to new probes) and U-shaped serial-position curves for all probe types. The two-dimensional continuous-strength model predicted these results best both qualitatively and quantitatively. The unidimensional and two-dimensional discrete-state models were able to predict the qualitative pattern of serial-position curves but failed to predict a sufficient amount of intrusion cost. The unidimensional continuous-strength model failed even to predict the qualitative pattern of the serial position effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Comparison of fMRI correlates of successful episodic memory encoding in temporal lobe epilepsy patients and healthy controls

Intra-cranial electroencephalographic brain recordings (iEEG) provide a powerful tool for investigating the neural processes supporting episodic memory encoding and form the basis of experimental therapies aimed at improving memory dysfunction. However, given the invasiveness of iEEG, investigations are constrained to patients with drug-resistant epilepsy for whom such recordings are clinically indicated. Particularly in the case of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), neuropathology and the possibility of functional reorganization are potential constraints on the generalizability of intra-cerebral findings and pose challenges to the development of therapies for memory disorders stemming from other etiologies. Here, samples of TLE (N ​= ​16; all of whom had undergone iEEG) and age-matched healthy control (N ​= ​19) participants underwent fMRI as they studied lists of concrete nouns. fMRI BOLD responses elicited by the study words were segregated according to subsequent performance on tests of delayed free recall and recognition memory. Subsequent memory effects predictive of both successful recall and recognition memory were evident in several neural regions, most prominently in the left inferior frontal gyrus, and did not demonstrate any group differences. Behaviorally, the groups did not differ in overall recall performance or in the strength of temporal contiguity effects. However, group differences in serial position effects and false alarm rates were evident during the free recall and recognition memory tasks, respectively. Despite these behavioral differences, neuropathology associated with temporal lobe epilepsy was apparently insufficient to give rise to detectable differences in the functional neuroanatomy of episodic memory encoding relative to neurologically healthy controls. The findings provide reassurance that iEEG findings derived from experimental paradigms similar to those employed here generalize to the neurotypical population.

マンガの読みにおける「文字」と「画」の情報処理 –“系列位置”および“二重符号化”の可能性の検討–

マンガの読みにおける「文字」と「画」の情報処理 –“系列位置”および“二重符号化”の可能性の検討–

Distinct role of flexible and stable encodings in sequential working memory

The serial-position effect in working memory is considered important for studying how a sequence of sensory information can be retained and manipulated simultaneously in neural memory circuits. Here, via a precise analysis of the primacy and recency effects in human psychophysical experiments, we propose that stable and flexible codings take distinct roles of retaining and updating information in working memory, and that their combination induces serial-position effects spontaneously. We found that stable encoding retains memory to induce the primacy effect, while flexible encoding used for learning new inputs induces the recency effect. A model simulation based on human data, confirmed that a neural network with both flexible and stable synapses could reproduce the major characteristics of serial-position effects. Our new prediction, that the control of resource allocation by flexible–stable coding balance can modulate memory performance in sequence-specific manner, was supported by pre-cued memory performance data in humans.

Effects of serial position on affective evaluation

Effects of serial position on affective evaluation

Individualising Graphical Layouts with Predictive Visual Search Models

In domains where users are exposed to large variations in visuo-spatial features among designs, they often spend excess time searching for common elements (features) on an interface. This article contributes individualised predictive models of visual search, and a computational approach to restructure graphical layouts for an individual user such that features on a new, unvisited interface can be found quicker. It explores four technical principles inspired by the human visual system (HVS) to predict expected positions of features and create individualised layout templates: (I) the interface with highest frequency is chosen as the template; (II) the interface with highest predicted recall probability (serial position curve) is chosen as the template; (III) the most probable locations for features across interfaces are chosen (visual statistical learning) to generate the template; (IV) based on a generative cognitive model, the most likely visual search locations for features are chosen (visual sampling modelling) to generate the template. Given a history of previously seen interfaces, we restructure the spatial layout of a new (unseen) interface with the goal of making its features more easily findable. The four HVS principles are implemented in Familiariser, a web browser that automatically restructures webpage layouts based on the visual history of the user. Evaluation of Familiariser (using visual statistical learning) with users provides first evidence that our approach reduces visual search time by over 10%, and number of eye-gaze fixations by over 20%, during web browsing tasks.

Best to Be Last: Serial Position Effects in Legal Decisions in the Field and in the Lab

Experts in many domains, from education and finances to sports and entertainment, make multiple similar but independent decisions in sequence. Does the mere serial position of a case in a sequence influence the decision? We focus on the legal domain in which many high-stakes decisions are made in a sequence and justice considerations imply irrelevant factors like serial position of a case must not impact decision making. We identify four mechanisms that can drive serial position effects and note each can have different predictions, hence existence and direction of such effects are empirical questions. Indeed, most empirical evidence from non-legal settings suggests decisions become more favorable with serial position, but a previous study of sequences of parole hearings finds the opposite effect. We analyze two field datasets, 386,109 US immigration judges’ decisions on asylum requests and 20,796 jury decisions in 18th century London criminal court, and find decisions become more favorable (lenient) the later a decision is made in a sequence of decisions. To complement the analysis, we run three controlled experiments with laypeople and find similar results. We conclude that while serial position effects may be context-specific, from the point of view of the individual involved, it is often best to be last.

Using response time distributions and race models to characterize primacy and recency effects in free recall initiation.

Primacy and recency effects are common benchmarks for models of free recall and episodic memory. In this work, we show that RT distributions carry diagnostic information about how items enter into competition for recall, and how that competition impacts on the dynamics of recall and leads to novel conclusions about the forms of primacy and recency effects. We jointly fit RT distributions and serial position functions for free recall initiation with both a racing diffusion model and the linear ballistic accumulator (LBA: Brown & Heathcote, 2008). The models were fit in a hierarchical Bayesian framework, factorially varying different assumptions of how primacy and recency are generated. Recency functions were either exponential or power law in shape. Primacy was treated either as a strength boost to the early list items so that both primacy and recency items jointly compete to be retrieved; a mixture of primacy and recency gradients reflecting the usage of different retrieval cues; or a primacy-as-recency account in which primacy items are functionally recent due to the contribution of rehearsal. Although serial position curves do not distinguish between these accounts, they make distinct predictions about how RT distributions vary across serial positions. Results from a number of data sets strongly favor an exponential recency function along with a mixture model of primacy and recency gradients. These results suggest that complete RT distributions can provide informative constraints on models of free recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

A serial-position curve in high-performance darts: The effect of visuomotor calibration on throwing accuracy.

The aim of the present research was to test if the fine-tuning of skilled motor actions benefits from proximate previous actions via a visuomotor calibration process. In professional darts, each player cycles through different activities: three darts are thrown with a rather smooth sequence of movements, the darts are retrieved from the dartboard, the other player throws his or her darts and retrieves them, the next three darts are thrown, retrieved, etc. We hypothesized that these cycles give rise to a serial-position curve for the precision of darts as a result of a particular kind of warm-up decrement. Even though the interruptions of actually throwing darts are only in the order of seconds, walking away from the throw line should lead to a loss of fine-tuning of the calibration of movement parameters with respect to targets defined in the external frame of reference of the dartboard. For the players of the 2017 Professional Darts Corporation World Darts Championship (N = 36,168 scores) we confirmed that the first dart of a series of three is indeed less accurate than the subsequent two. This warm-up decrement is particularly pronounced for vertical errors, for which the relation to movement parameters is more complex than for horizontal errors. Fine-tuning of visuomotor calibration is a neglected facet of warm-up that is also important for various other sports such as tennis, basketball, handball, and football.

Offloading memory: Serial position effects.

Despite the long history and pervasiveness of cognitive offloading as a memory strategy, the memorial fate of offloaded information is not well understood. Recent work has suggested that offloading information may engage similar mechanisms as instructions to forget (e.g., directed forgetting). In the present investigation, we test this prediction by examining the serial position effect for offloaded information. Previous research has demonstrated that "forget" instructions can eliminate the primacy effect while leaving an intact recency effect. Across two experiments, participants completed a number of free recall trials using an external aid and then a final recall trial without the external aid. We compared a group that was expecting to use the aid for the final trial (offloading) with a group that was not (no-offloading). We found a memory impairment for offloaded items that was characterized by a reduced primacy effect but a typical recency effect, similar to what has been reported in research on intentional/directed forgetting.