Sequencing Batch Reactor System Research Articles

Monitoring and control of biological nutrient removal in a Sequencing Batch Reactor

Oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) can be used to monitor and control biological nutrient removal process in an Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) reactor. The objective of this study was to establish control strategies for biological phosphorus and nitrogen removal using ORP, DO and pH profiles. A lab scale SBR system was used. It was observed that when nitrate was fully consumed in the anoxic phase, ORP values were more negative (−55 mV). However, after the consumption of nitrates, phosphate release was observed in the anoxic phase with the provision of true anaerobic conditions. This shows that the anoxic phase was characterized by denitrification and phosphorus release. The break point in the pH and ORP curve in the anoxic period coincided with the end of denitrifying activity at about 10 min of the anoxic phase. The change in the ORP and pH appears to be related to nitrate concentration and these parameters show a nitrate “knee” and the ammonia “valley” during the operation. Therefore, the experimental study showed that pH and ORP values can be used as control parameters for denitrification and biological phosphorus removal. However, it is observed that pH profile provide much information during the oxic phase, whereas ORP in the anoxic phase.

Effects of pH and Substrate on the Competition Between Glycogen and Phosphorus Accumulating Organisms

This article evaluates effects of pH and substrate on the competition between glycogen (GAOs) and phosphorus accumulating organisms (PAOs). A sequencing batch reactor system was operated for enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) with acetate as the sole carbon source and acetate added domestic wastewater at different influent acetate/phosphate ratios. Some batch tests were performed using acetate added domestic wastewater at different influent acetate/phosphate ratios, with different initial pH values of acetate and domestic wastewater mixture. The resulting experimental data supported the presence of GAOs for all tested HAC/P ratios, especially under P limiting conditions for acetate as sole carbon source. Strong evidence is observed that acetate added domestic wastewater system had higher PAOs fraction than acetate system as sole source carbon, with using model components, namely substrate uptake, glycogen utilization and P release.

Feasibility study of sequencing batch reactor system for upgrading wastewater treatment in Malaysia

The objective of this study was to assess the feasibility of the Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) system for implementation in Malaysia. Theoretical, field, laboratory investigations, and modelling simulations have been carried out. The results of the study indicated that the SBR system was robust, relatively cost-effective, and efficient under Malaysian conditions. However, the SBR system requires highly skilled operators and continuous monitoring. This paper also attempted to identify operating conditions for the SBR system, which optimise both the removal efficiencies and the removal rates. The removal efficiencies could reach 90-96% for COD, up to 92% for TN, and 95% for SS. An approach to estimate a full operational cycle time, to estimate the de-sludging rate, and to control the biomass in the sludge has also been developed. About 4 hours react time was obtained, as 2.25 hours of nitrification with aerated slow fill and 1.75 hour of denitrification with HAc addition as an additional carbon source. Inefficient settling was one of the problems that affect the SBR effluent quality. The settling time was one hour for achieving Standard B (effluent quality) and 2 hours for Standard A.

Treatment of dairy effluents in an aerobic granular sludge sequencing batch reactor

Aerobic granular sludge can successfully be cultivated in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) treating dairy wastewater. Attention has to be paid to the fact that suspended solids are always present in the effluent of aerobic granular sludge reactors, making a post-treatment step necessary. Sufficient post-treatment can be achieved through a sedimentation process with a hydraulic retention time of 15-30 min. After complete granulation and the separation of biomass from the effluent, removal efficiencies of 90% CODtotal, 80% Ntotal and 67% Ptotal can be achieved at a volumetric exchange ratio of 50% and a cycle duration of 8 h. Effluent values stabilize at around 125 mg l-1 CODdissolved. The maximum applicable loading rate is nevertheless limited, as the stability of aerobic granules very much depends on the presence of distinct feast and famine conditions and the degradation of real wastewaters shows slower kinetics compared with synthetic wastewaters. As loading rate and volumetric exchange ratio are coupled in an SBR system, the potential of granular sludge for improving process efficiency is also limited.

Bioregeneration of powdered activated carbon in the treatment of alkyl-substituted phenolic compounds in simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation processes

The role of bioregeneration process in renewing the adsorbent surface for further adsorption of organics during simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation processes has been well recognized. The extent of bioregeneration of powdered activated carbon (PAC) as an adsorbent loaded with phenol, p-methylphenol, p-ethylphenol and p-isopropylphenol, respectively, in the simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation processes were quantitatively determined using oxygen uptake as a measure of substrate consumption. Bioregeneration phenomenon was also evaluated in the simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation processes under sequencing batch reactor (SBR) operation to treat synthetic wastewater containing 1200 mg l −1 phenol and p-methylphenol, respectively. The SBR systems were operated with FILL, REACT, SETTLE, DRAW and IDLE periods in the ratio of 4:6:1:0.75:0.25 for a cycle time of 12 h. The results show that the percentage of desorption from loaded PAC decreased in the order phenol > p-methylphenol > p-ethylphenol > p-isopropylphenol. For the treatment of phenol and p-methylphenol in the SBR reactors, respectively, the simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation processes were able to produce a consistent effluent quality of COD ⩽100 mg l −1 when the applied PAC dosage was 0.115 and 0.143 g PAC per cycle, respectively. When no further PAC was added, the treatment performance deteriorated to that of the case without PAC addition after 68 and 48 cycles of SBR operation, respectively, for phenol and p-methylphenol. This observation is consistent with the greater extent of bioregeneration for phenol-loaded PAC as compared to p-methylphenol-loaded PAC.

Mass transfer impacts in flocculent and granular biomass from SBR systems

An experimental study was conducted to describe mass transfer impacts within nitrifying aggregates sourced from sequencing batch reactor (SBR) activated sludge systems. Flocculent and granular sludge with high nitrification activity was obtained in two laboratory SBR systems, supplied with a synthetic, ammonium-based feed. The flocculent biomass was fractionated using a sieving procedure, in order to obtain biomass fractions with different particle size distributions. The oxygen uptake rate (OUR) response to changes in dissolved oxygen concentration was measured under highly controlled conditions in a titrimetric and off-gas analysis (TOGA) sensor, and the results used to assess mass transfer effects. As the average particle size of the biomass increased, mass transfer limitations were found to increase significantly. Empirically fitted, apparent K(S,O2) values were demonstrated to be highly dependent on particle size, and reflect the mass transfer limitations occurring in the aggregates within a given system. Such parameters thus have little to do with the actual biokinetic parameter from which they are derived. The results obtained from the TOGA sensor study were consistent with those obtained from a microelectrode study on the same nitrifying granules. Together, these studies add considerable weight to the conclusion that consideration of external and internal mass transfer limitations is vital to the accurate description of activated sludge treatment processes, particularly those with a high oxygen uptake rate.

Optimal but robust N and P removal in SBRs: a model-based systematic study of operation scenarios

A systematic approach to determine the optimal operation strategy for nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) removal of sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) has been developed and applied successfully to a lab-scale SBR. The methodology developed is based on using a grid of possible scenarios to simulate the effect of the key degrees of freedom in the SBR system. The grid of scenarios is simulated using a calibrated ASM2dN model developed and calibrated in a previous study. Effluent quality in combination with a robustness index for each of the scenarios is used to select the best scenario. With the best scenario, it is possible to improve/increase the current performance of the SBR system by around 54% and 74% for N and P removal respectively.

Two-stage SBR for treatment of oil refinery wastewater

A two-stage sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system was used for treatment of oily wastewater with COD and oil and grease (O&G) concentrations ranging from 1,722-7,826 mg/L and 5,365-13,350 mg/L, respectively. A suitable start-up protocol was developed using gradual increase in oily wastewater composition with methanol as the co-substrate. This strategy enabled a short acclimation period of 12 days for the sludge in the two-stage SBR to adapt to the oily wastewater. After acclimation, the 1st stage and 2nd stage SBRs were able to achieve COD removals of 47.0+/-2.4% and 95.3+/-0.5%, respectively. The 1st stage SBR was able to achieve 99.8+/-0.1% of O&G removal and effluent O&G from the 1st stage SBR was only 6+/-2 mg/L. The 2nd stage SBR was used to further remove COD in the effluent from the 1st stage SBR. The final effluent from the 2nd stage SBR had a COD concentration of 97+/-16 mg/L with no detectable O&G content. Thus, a two-stage SBR system was shown to be feasible for treating high strength oily wastewater to meet the local discharge standards.

Performance evaluation of hybrid and conventional sequencing batch reactor and continuous processes

Bench-scale systems, using conventional and compact hybrid activated sludge configurations, were set up to evaluate the systems' nitrification-denitrification performance, operating sludge age/MLSS concentration and sludge settleability at a Hong Kong municipal STW. Configurations tested were the continuous clarifier modified Ludzack Ettinger (MLE) and the sequencing batch reactor (SBR) with and without hybrid suspended biofilm carriers. Results demonstrated that the hybrid SBR and MLE systems consistently achieved close to complete nitrification (effluent NH4-N = 2.4 and 6.9 mg/L) and 75% and 67% removal of nitrogen (N) (effluent NO3-N < 10 mg/L) with an overall hydraulic retention time of only 7.5 hours, operating sludge age as short as 5.2 days, and mixed liquor suspended solids concentration of approximately 1,300 mg/L with a sludge volume index of 109 and 229 mL/g, respectively. The most sensitive and slowest growing nitrifiers attached to the hybrid biofilm carriers. This allowed the hybrid processes to be operated at a sludge age shorter than the critical nitrifying sludge age while still retaining near complete nitrification. In contrast, to achieve complete nitrification, the conventional MLE system needed to be operated at 1.5 to 2.5 times the critical sludge age. These results indicate that the hybrid MLE configuration is a suitable process for use in upgrading existing conventional works for N removal and for increasing hydraulic capacity of existing N removal works, without major civil works modifications, in Hong Kong. For new works, consideration might be given to the use of the hybrid SBR, which shows a more stable N removal performance than the MLE process due to its inherent in-basin equalization capacity and better reaction conditions for nitrification in terms of higher initial NH4-N level. It was also observed that the conventional SBR produced better nitrification performance than the hybrid MLE process tested. Design parameters and operating conditions of the hybrid systems should be subjected to further full-scale trial for higher hydraulic capacity and N removal performance.

Anaerobic co-digestion of sewage sludge and food waste using temperature-phased anaerobic digestion process

This study was performed to overcome the low efficiency of anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge and food waste by combining temperature-phased digestion, sequencing batch operation, and co-digestion technology. It was demonstrated that the temperature-phased anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (TPASBR) system for the co-digestion of sewage sludge and food waste resulted in enhanced volatile solids (VS) reduction and methane production rate. At the organic loading rate (OLR) of 2.7 g VS/l/d, the TPASBR system showed the higher VS reduction (61.3%), CH4 yield (0.28 l/g VS(added)) and CH4 production rate (0.41 l CH4/l/d) than those (0.29 l CH4/l/d) of the mesophilic two-stage ASBR (MTSASBR). In the specific methanogenic activity (SMA) tests on thermophilic biomass of the TPASBR system, the average SMA of acetate (93 ml CH4/gVSS/d) was much higher than those of propionate (46 ml CH4/g VSS/d) and butyrate (76 ml CH4/g VSS/d). Also, higher specific hydrolytic activity (SHA, 217 mg COD/g VSS/d) of the biomass supported fast hydrolysis under thermophilic conditions. The track study revealed that the most active period of the 24 h cycle was between 6 and 12 h. The enhanced performance of the TPASBR system could be attributed to longer solids retention time, fast hydrolysis, higher CH4 conversion rate, and balanced nutrient condition of co-substrate. It was verified that this combination could be a promising and practical alternative for the simultaneous recycling of two types of organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) with high stability.

The SBR and its biofilm application potentials

Twenty plus years of experience, innovation, and research in the field of biological wastewater treatment and biofilm applications lead to the conclusion that biofilms are in many cases more desirable in reactors than suspended activated sludge. Biofilm reactors can provide very long biomass residence times even when the hydraulic influent loading is low. This makes them particularly suitable when treatment requires slow growing organisms with poor biomass yield or when the wastewater concentration is too low to support growth of activated sludge flocs. Regardless of the settling characteristics of biological aggregates or the hydraulic influent loading the metabolic activity in the reactor can be maintained at a high level. This paper reviews the application of biofilms in sequencing batch reactor (SBR) systems to treat non-readily biodegradable substrates, volatile organic waste constituents, complex waste streams requiring co-metabolism, and particulate wastewaters. Recent research using the SBR to form aerobic granular sludge as a special application of biofilms is also discussed.

An experimental procedure for identifying the aerobic-phase biological source of nitrous oxide in anoxic–aerobic wastewater treatment systems

This paper describes a relatively simple experimental procedure used to assess the relative contribution of autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms in the generation of aerobic-phase nitrous oxide from a mixed microbial population in a bench-scale, anoxic–aerobic, sequencing batch reactor (SBR) wastewater treatment system. The procedure eliminated ammonia oxidation from a "perturbation" cycle, while maintaining pH and dissolved oxygen levels similar to the "baseline" cycle. Nitrite and carbon oxidation were maintained during the perturbation cycle. Compared to more complex methods such as stable isotope labelling techniques, the described procedure is logistically simple and requires equipment readily available in most environmental engineering laboratories. When applied to an SBR system treating synthetic wastewater (influent ammonia N concentration = 160 mg/L), the experimental results strongly suggest that essentially all of the nitrous oxide produced during the aerobic phase of the cycle was generated by autotrophic, ammonia oxidizing organisms. Little, if any, nitrous oxide appeared to be generated by heterotrophic denitrification during the aerobic phase of the cycle. Key words: nitrification, aerobic denitrification, nitrous oxide, nitrite reduction.

Combining SBR systems for chemical and biological treatment: the destruction of the nerve agent VX

The US Army is pilot testing the neutralization of VX nerve agent stockpiled at Newport, Indiana using caustic hydrolysis in a Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR). The resulting hydrolysate was tested at the bench-scale for treatment with activated sludge biodegradation in two distinct studies, one in the SBR and another, in the PACT process. The feed to both biological systems was pretreated to enhance the biodegradability of the hydrolysis products. Both biodegradation studies demonstrated that the hydrolysate could easily meet the Chemical Weapons Convention treaty and US environmental regulations following pretreatment.

A screen-printed biosensor using pyruvate oxidase for rapid determination of phosphate in synthetic wastewater.

A screen-printed phosphate biosensor based on immobilized pyruvate oxidase (PyOD, E.C. 1.2.3.3) has been developed for monitoring phosphate concentrations in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system. The enzyme was immobilized by a nafion matrix and covered a poly(carbamoyl) sulfonate (PCS) hydrogel on a screen-printed electrode. PyOD consumes phosphate in the presence of pyruvate and oxygen and generates hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), carbon dioxide and acetylphosphate. The electroactive H2O2, monitored at +420 mV vs Ag/AgCl, is generated in proportion to the concentration of phosphate. The sensor has a fast response time (2 s) and a short recovery period (2 min). The time required for one measurement using this phosphate biosensor was 4 min, which was faster than the time required using a commercial phosphate testing kit (10 min). The sensor has a linear range from 7.5 microM to 625 microM phosphate with a detection limit of 3.6 microM. There was good agreement (R2=0.9848) between the commercial phosphate testing kit and the phosphate sensor in measurements of synthetic wastewater in a SBR system. This sensor maintained a high working stability (>85%) after 12 h of operation and involved a simple operation procedure. It therefore serves as a useful tool for rapid and accurate phosphate measurements in the SBR system and probably for process control.

Removal of Vat Dyes from Textile Wastewater Using Biosludge

Abstract Biosludge from a wastewater treatment plant was able to adsorb colourants, particularly vat dyes, from textile wastewater. Autoclaved and resting biosludge showed different adsorption abilities with different types of vat dyes. The adsorption ability of the biosludge increased with an increase in sludge age (solid retention time; SRT). Autoclaved biosludge showed the highest adsorption ability under acidic conditions (pH 3) while the resting biosludge showed the highest adsorption ability under neutral or weak alkaline conditions. The maximum colourant (Vat Black 25) adsorption capacities of autoclaved and resting biosludge with a sludge age of 24 days were 85.54 ± 0.5 and 37.59 ± 0.6 mg/g biosludge, respectively. Using a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system, the biosludge was able to remove both organic matter and colourants from both textile and synthetic textile wastewaters. The removal efficiencies of the system increased with an increase in SRT of the system. The removal efficiency of the system with textile wastewater was lower than with synthetic textile wastewater. The BOD5 and colourant removal efficiency of the SBR system with textile and synthetic textile industrial wastewaters under a BOD5 loading of 0.13 kg BOD/m3-d were 70.1 ± 4.4% and 84.9 ± 2.0%, and 98.1 ± 1.5% and 87.5 ± 5.1%, respectively.

Effects of nickel(II) addition on the activity of activated sludge microorganisms and activated sludge process

The effects of Ni(II) in a synthetic wastewater on the activity of activated sludge microorganisms and sequencing batch reactor (SBR) treatment process were investigated. Two parallel lab-scale SBR systems were operated. One was used as a control unit, while the other received Ni(II) concentrations equal to 5 and 10 mg/l. The SBR systems were operated with FILL, REACT, SETTLE, DRAW and IDLE modes in the time ratio of 0.5:3.5:1.0:0.75:0.25 for a cycle time of 6 h. The addition of Ni(II) into SBR system caused drastically dropped in TOC removal rate ( k) and specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR) by activated sludge microorganisms due to the inhibitory effects of Ni(II) on the bioactivity of microorganisms. The addition of 5 mg/l Ni(II) caused a slight reduction in TOC removal efficiency, whereas 10 mg/l Ni(II) addition significantly affected the SBR performance in terms of suspended solids and TOC removal efficiency. Termination of Ni(II) addition led to almost full recovery of the bioactivity in microorganisms as shown in the increase of specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR) and SBR treatment performance.

Behaviors of intercellular materials and nutrients in biological nutrient removal process supplied with domestic wastewater and food waste.

A four-stage biological nutrient removal (BNR) process was operated to investigate the effect of anaerobically fermented leachate of food waste (AFLFW) as an external carbon source on nutrient removal from domestic wastewater having a low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. The BNR system that was supplemented with AFLFW showed a good performance at a sludge retention time (SRT) of 30 days, despite low temperature. With this wastewater, average removal efficiencies of soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (T-N), and total phosphorus (T-P) were 88 to 93%, 70 to 74%, and 63 to 68%, respectively. In this study, several kinds of poly-hydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) were observed in cells. These included 24% poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), 41% poly-3-hydroxyvalerate (PHV), 18% poly-3-hydroxyhexanoate (PHH), 10% poly-3-hydroxyoctanoate (PHO), 5% poly-3-hydroxydecanoate (PHD). and 2% poly-3-hydroxydodecanoate (PHDD), indicating that microorganisms could store various PHAs through the different metabolic pathways. However, breakdown of the enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) mechanism was observed when SRT increased from 30 to 50 days for the enhancement of nitrification. To study the effect of SRT on EBPR, a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system that was supplied with glucose was operated at various SRTs of 5, 10, and 15 days. Nitrification and denitrification efficiencies increased as SRT increased. However, the content of intracellular materials such as PHAs, glycogen. and poly-P in cells decreased. From these results, it was concluded that SRT should be carefully controlled to increase nitrification activity and to maintain biological phosphorus removal activity in the BNR process.

Effects of Cu(II) and Cd(II) on the performance of sequencing batch reactor treatment system

The effects of Cu(II) and Cd(II)-containing wastewater on activated sludge microorganisms were investigated. The addition of Cu(II) and Cd(II) affected significantly the activities of activated sludge microorganisms in the bio-oxidation process, as indicated by drastic reduction in the specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR) values. The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system was operated with FILL, REACT, SETTLE, DRAW, and IDLE modes in the time ratio of 0.5:3.5:1.0:0.75:0.25 for one cycle time of 6 h. The addition of Cu(II) and Cd(II)-containing synthetic wastewater into the SBR system decreased the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and metals removal efficiencies. The examination of the pseudo first-order rate constant, k′, providing a quantitative estimate of the inhibitory effect of the metal, showed that the k′ value with the metals addition was around 10 times lower than that without metals addition.

Use of stable-isotope probing, full-cycle rRNA analysis, and fluorescence in situ hybridization-microautoradiography to study a methanol-fed denitrifying microbial community.

A denitrifying microbial consortium was enriched in an anoxically operated, methanol-fed sequencing batch reactor (SBR) fed with a mineral salts medium containing methanol as the sole carbon source and nitrate as the electron acceptor. The SBR was inoculated with sludge from a biological nutrient removal activated sludge plant exhibiting good denitrification. The SBR denitrification rate improved from less than 0.02 mg of NO(3)(-)-N mg of mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS)(-1) h(-1) to a steady-state value of 0.06 mg of NO(3)(-)-N mg of MLVSS(-1) h(-1) over a 7-month operational period. At this time, the enriched microbial community was subjected to stable-isotope probing (SIP) with [(13)C]methanol to biomark the DNA of the denitrifiers. The extracted [(13)C]DNA and [(12)C]DNA from the SIP experiment were separately subjected to full-cycle rRNA analysis. The dominant 16S rRNA gene phylotype (group A clones) in the [(13)C]DNA clone library was closely related to those of the obligate methylotrophs Methylobacillus and Methylophilus in the order Methylophilales of the Betaproteobacteria (96 to 97% sequence identities), while the most abundant clone groups in the [(12)C]DNA clone library mostly belonged to the family Saprospiraceae in the Bacteroidetes phylum. Oligonucleotide probes for use in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) were designed to specifically target the group A clones and Methylophilales (probes DEN67 and MET1216, respectively) and the Saprospiraceae clones (probe SAP553). Application of these probes to the SBR biomass over the enrichment period demonstrated a strong correlation between the level of SBR denitrification and relative abundance of DEN67-targeted bacteria in the SBR community. By contrast, there was no correlation between the denitrification rate and the relative abundances of the well-known denitrifying genera Hyphomicrobium and Paracoccus or the Saprospiraceae clones visualized by FISH in the SBR biomass. FISH combined with microautoradiography independently confirmed that the DEN67-targeted cells were the dominant bacterial group capable of anoxic [(14)C]methanol uptake in the enriched biomass. The well-known denitrification lag period in the methanol-fed SBR was shown to coincide with a lag phase in growth of the DEN67-targeted denitrifying population. We conclude that Methylophilales bacteria are the dominant denitrifiers in our SBR system and likely are important denitrifiers in full-scale methanol-fed denitrifying sludges.

Application of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) biosensor for optimization of biological carbon and nitrogen removal from synthetic wastewater in a sequencing batch reactor system

A bench scale reactor using a sequencing batch reactor process was used to evaluate the applicability of biosensors for the process optimization of biological carbon and nitrogen removal. A commercial biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) biosensor with a novel microbial membrane was used to determine the duration of each phase by measuring samples in real time in an SBR cycle with filling/anoxic–anaerobic/aerobic/sludge wasting/settling/withdrawal periods. Possible strategies to increase the efficiency for the biological removal of carbon and nitrogen from synthetic wastewater have been developed. The results show that application of a BOD biosensor enables estimation of organic carbon, in real time, allowing the optimization or reduction the SBR cycle time. Some typical consumption patterns for organic carbon in the non-aeration phase of a typical SBR operation were identified. The rate of decrease of BOD measured using a sensor BOD, was the highest in the initial glucose breakdown period and during denitrification. It then slowed down until a ‘quiescent period’ was observed, which may be considered as the commencement of the aeration period. Monitoring the BOD curve with a BOD biosensor allowed the reduction of the SBR cycle time, which leads to an increase in the removal efficiency. By reducing the cycle time from 8 to 4 h cycle, the removal efficiencies of nitrate, glucose, and phosphorus in a given time interval, were increased to nearly double, while the removal of nitrogen ammonium was increased by one-third.