Separate Constructs Research Articles

Data Classification System for Economic Analysis after the Implementation of Separate Order Construction in the Firefighting System Installation Business

Data on the performance of the firefighting system installation business are scarce compared with other construction projects, such as electricity and information and communication projects, where separate order construction was previously practiced. This study aimed to obtain data on fire facility construction contracts by analyzing the current data, deriving improvement plans, and reviewing empirical studies on separate order construction from various construction projects, both domestically and internationally. An analysis of the data from Statistics Korea and the Public Procurement Service revealed an annual increase in the number and amount of firefighting system installation projects. In addition, the scale of the construction could be identified using separate order construction data. This study highlights cost reduction, shortened construction delay periods, and increased construction speed as the key economic review items. Based on these findings, a data classification system for the construction of firefighting facilities was proposed and categorized according to the project size, ordering organization, contractor, type of construction, construction period, and contract method.

The function of oneiric miniatures in the inner plot of F.M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”

INTRODUCTION. This study examines the structural interaction of the oneiric component of the novel poetics of Crime and Punishment with the plot of the entire work. The aim of the study is to define the role of oneiric miniatures in the main character’s image development. For this purpose, the series of dreams of the protagonist is singled out as a separate poetological construct, which shows compositional overlap with the strong position of the first dream.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The comprehensive study of F.M. Dostoevsky’s work is based on hermeneuticinterpretation, structural-semantic, phenomenological methods, the method of holistic analysis with the use of motive analysis techniques. Special attention is paid to the hermeneutic opposition of the first and second dreams in terms of the bipolar psychologism of Raskolnikov’s image. In the concept of Dostoevsky’s bipolar poetics of the text, the cycle of oneiric miniatures is analyzed as the basis of the internal plot, revealing the discourse about the hero’s “new word” full of understatement.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. The analysis of the conversation with Razumikhin about “great sadness” shows the non-coincidence of the concepts of “truly great people” and “nonordinary” (in the context of his article) in the hero’s autoreflection. The image of a horse from the first dream allegorically correlates with the picture of nomadic life, which the hero observes in the finale of the work, as well as with the dream of biblical Egypt, symbolizing salvation from spiritual slavery and loneliness. The subtextual image of the prophet Moses is interpreted as an image of merging with the people, etymological parallels of the name “Rodion” with the Egyptian origin of the name “Moses” are given. The surname “Raskolnikov” and the name “Sonya” are also interpreted in a Gnostic way about the “mistake” in the creation of the world and its imperfection.CONCLUSION. The existential error in Raskolnikov’s own speculative theory is deduced from the analysis of the hero’s dream cycle as a projection of an internal plot into an external one. This approach is the key to interpreting the evolution of Raskolnikov’s image from tragic alienation to vitalistic awakening.

Identifying depression, diabetes distress, and suicidality among adolescents with diabetes

ABSTRACT This study explored the frequency of adolescents with diabetes who endorse suicidality on the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) with varying degrees of depression scores. Additionally, compared whether diabetes distress levels from the Problem Areas in Diabetes-Teen (PAID-T) assessment tool is associated with and without suicidal ideation. Χ2 analysis was used to assess differences in subjects with or without suicidal ideation based on depression severity. Since all the data were nonparametrically distributed (Shapiro–Wilk test, p < .05), Kruskal–Wallis test assessed differences in continuous variables. Overall, 27 of 355 adolescents screened endorsed suicidal ideation. Both PHQ-9 [13 (9–17.8) vs 1 (0–4.5)] and PAID-T [88 (61.8–104.5) vs 40 (30–58.8)] scores were significantly higher in patients with suicidal ideation. The frequency of suicidal ideation increased with the severity of depression. The frequency of severe depression was higher in adolescents with type 2 diabetes (n = 48) than in type 1, but there was no difference in suicidality. Adolescents with no demonstrable or minimal depression can still have potential suicidal ideation. Suicidality is a separate construct that should be screened routinely and apart from any measures screening for distress or adjustment disorders associated with adolescents experiencing life-long chronic conditions in a healthcare follow-up setting.

Clinical correlates of irritability, anger, hostility, and aggression in posttraumatic stress disorder.

Although irritability, anger, and aggression are diagnostic symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), their clinical significance and associations with psychopathology remain unclear. In a sample of community adults with probable PTSD (n = 151), we measured irritability, physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility with the Brief Irritability Test and the Brief Aggression Questionnaire. Participants' psychopathology, including depression, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), psychotic-like experiences, insomnia, as well as suicidal behaviors were also assessed. Correlation analysis showed that irritability and anger were modestly related to all PTSD dimensions; physical aggression was related to avoidance, negative alterations in cognitions and mood (NACM), and hyperarousal; hostility was related to reexperiencing, NACM, and hyperarousal; while verbal aggression was not significantly related to any PTSD dimensions. After adjustment for trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms, irritability was associated with almost all psychopathology and suicidal behaviors, however, anger, hostility, and aggression were sparsely related to some psychopathology or suicidal behaviors. Particularly, anger was only related to ADHD and insomnia. Latent profile analysis based on PTSD, irritability, anger, hostility, and aggression indicated two discrete subgroups: the high severity group (33.8%) and the low severity group (66.2%), with high severity group reporting higher rates of comorbidity and suicidal behaviors. The findings support irritability, aggression, anger, and hostility as separate constructs; moreover, irritability, anger, and aggression should be independently measured in PTSD. Our findings also suggest the significance of irritability as a separate hallmark of PTSD and the need to incorporate PTSD dimensions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Are physical activity and everyday mobility independently associated with quality of life at older age?

BackgroundPhysical activity and everyday mobility are concepts that overlap but tend to be located in different disciplinary fields. We used the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) to: identify whether physical activity and everyday mobility are separate constructs at younger (60–69) and/or older (>=70) age bands, and for men and women; derive measures of the two constructs from variables in the ELSA; and assess whether they are independently associated with quality of life (QoL). MethodsWe derived composite measures for physical activity and everyday mobility from ELSA variables. ‘Physical Activity’ combined items recording directly-measured activity for movement (walk-speed) and self-report measures of physical mobility difficulties and amount of vigorous, moderate and mild physical activity undertaken. ‘Everyday Mobility’ combined self-report responses about activities likely to involve leaving the house. QoL was measured using the ‘CASP-19′ scale. Using Wave 9 of ELSA (data collection in 2018–2020), we used a factor analysis to explore the constructs, and a regression analysis to examine associations with QoL. ResultsThe factor analysis confirmed that these were discrete constructs, which explained between them 36% of the variance. This was robust across age bands, and in factor analyses for men and women separately. The regression analysis identified that lower physical activity and everyday mobility are independently associated with lower QoL, when controlling for a range of contextual variables including age. ConclusionsFindings suggest that a social model of QoL at older age should focus on the broader mobility determinants of QoL as well as individual levels of physical activity.

Challenges of Implementing Integrated Project Delivery in the Construction Industry in Egypt

Abstract The construction industry, being one of the biggest sectors globally, has a crucial part to play in achieving global sustainability goals. However, it faces criticism for practices that impede sustainability in construction projects. This is often attributed to the continued reliance on traditional construction methods and contracts, which typically separate design and construction phases. This separation hampers communication among project stakeholders and hinders construction professionals from offering feedback to improve project performance. Despite various efforts to address the shortcomings of traditional procurement methods and contracts, this issue persists. Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) offers a fresh strategy that combines people, systems, business models, and practices to boost value for clients, reduce waste, encourage teamwork, and increase efficiency throughout the entire project. Nonetheless, integrating this approach into the construction sector in Egypt and the MENA region encounters several hurdles. This study aims to explore the challenges associated with implementing IPD in Egypt’s construction industry. This research employs a qualitative approach, grounding its findings in a thorough review of literature and detailed case studies. It explores the nature of the construction industry, sustainability efforts, construction contracts, and IPD. Furthermore, it includes an analysis of three case studies to shed light on the benefits of implementing IPD in construction projects.

Associations of early adversity and negative emotionality with emerging adult latent internalizing

BackgroundEarly adversity (EA) predicts later internalizing, and trait diatheses also play a role in how this risk manifests. However, research is mixed on whether these factors function independently or interactively. Furthermore, recent work questions whether three trait diatheses thought to be distinct—neuroticism, dysfunctional attitudes, and brooding rumination—may be modeled as a single latent negative emotionality factor. The present study tests if brooding rumination and dysfunctional attitudes are better modeled with neuroticism as part of negative emotionality, as opposed to separate constructs, and whether negative emotionality and EA interact to predict latent internalizing or operate independently. Methods768 emerging adults (71.1% minoritized race/ethnicity) completed self-report surveys for this study. Latent moderated structural equation models were conducted to test associations between EA, trait diatheses, and internalizing. ResultsBrooding rumination and dysfunctional attitudes were best modeled as latent factors separate from—but highly correlated with—latent neuroticism. Latent trait diatheses and EA did not significantly interact to predict internalizing symptoms; however, there were significant main effects of latent brooding rumination and neuroticism. Although EA and dysfunctional attitudes had significant associations with internalizing when examined alone, their effects were negligible once neuroticism and brooding rumination were included in models. ConclusionsOur findings suggest neuroticism most strongly confers risk for internalizing, which may help to inform preventive intervention efforts.

Affordance norms for 2825 concrete nouns.

Objects are commonly described based on their relations to other objects (e.g., associations, semantic similarity, etc.) or their physical features (e.g., birds have wings, feathers, etc.). However, objects can also be described in terms of their actionable properties (i.e., affordances), which reflect interactive relations between actors and objects. While several normed datasets have been developed to categorize various aspects of meaning (e.g., semantic features, cue-target associations, etc.), to date, norms for affordances have not been generated. We address this limitation by developing a set of affordance norms for 2825 concrete nouns. Using an open-response format, we computed affordance strength (AFS; i.e., the probability of an item eliciting a particular action response), affordance proportion (AFP; i.e., the proportion of participants who provided a specific action response), and affordance set size (AFSS; i.e., the total number of unique action responses) for each item. Because our stimuli overlapped with Pexman et al.'s, Behavior Research Methods, 51, 453-466, (2019) body-object interaction norms (BOI), we tested whether AFS, AFP, and AFSS were related to BOI, as objects with more perceived action properties may be viewed as being more interactive. Additionally, we tested the relationship between AFS and AFP and two separate measures of relatedness: cosine similarity (Buchanan et al., Behavior Research Methods, 51, 1849-1863, 2019a, Behavior Research Methods, 51, 1878-1888, 2019b) and forward associative strength (Nelson et al., Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(3), 402-407, 2004). All analyses, however, revealed weak relationships between affordance measures and existing semantic norms, suggesting that affordance properties reflect a separate construct.

Does B2B salespeople’s love of money attitude mediate the relationships between a growth mindset, a fixed mindset, grit, and job performance?

Purpose To most people, money is a motivator, which is robustly true for salespeople. A high love of money attitude predicts university students’ poor academic performance in a business course and cheating in laboratory experiments and multiple panel studies, but money (income) itself does not predict dishonesty. Extrinsic reward undermines intrinsic motivation. Very little research has incorporated the grit construct in the sales literature and explored the relationship between grit and the love of money. Further, a growth mindset and a fixed mindset may also impact salespeople’s job performance. This study aims to explore a brand-new theoretical structural equation model (SEM) and investigate the relationships between individual characteristics (growth and fixed mindsets and grit orientation) and job performance directly and indirectly through a mediator – salespeople’s love of money attitude. Design/methodology/approach This study uses Qualtrics and collects data from 330 business-to-business (B2B) salespeople across several industries in the USA. This study uses a formative SEM model to test this study’s hypotheses. Findings First, there are significant correlations among grit, a growth mindset and a fixed mindset, revealing no construct duplication or redundancy. Second, both a growth mindset and grit indirectly enhance job performance through the love of money attitude – a mediator, offering a brand-new discovery. Third, counter-intuitively, a growth mindset and grit do not directly improve job performance. Fourth, grit is significantly and negatively related to the love of money attitude, adding a new twist to this study’s theoretical model. Fifth, a fixed mindset undermines job performance directly but is unrelated to the love of money. Overall, B2B salespeople’s love of money attitude (employee demand) undermines sales personnel’s self-reported job performance (organization demand) in the organization and employee’s supply and demand exchange relationship. Originality/value The findings reveal that a growth mindset, a fixed mindset and grit contribute differently to sales personnel’s love of money attitude and job performance in this study’s theoretical model. The love of money serves as a mediator. A commonly accepted belief is that money is a motivator. Money (income) itself and the love of money attitude are two separate constructs. This study’s novel discoveries provide the essential missing monetary-aspirations-to-job-performance link in the literature – ardent monetary aspiration undermines self-reported job performance. This study offers inspiration to help decision-makers make happy, healthy and wealthy decisions and improve performance.

Cracking and Packing Information about the Features of Expected Rewards in the Orbitofrontal Cortex.

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is crucial for tracking various aspects of expected outcomes, thereby helping to guide choices and support learning. Our previous study showed that the effects of reward timing and size on the activity of single units in OFC were dissociable when these attributes were manipulated independently ( Roesch et al., 2006). However, in real-life decision-making scenarios, outcome features often change simultaneously, so here we investigated how OFC neurons in male rats integrate information about the timing and identity (flavor) of reward and respond to changes in these features, according to whether they were changed simultaneously or separately. We found that a substantial number of OFC neurons fired differentially to immediate versus delayed reward and to the different reward flavors. However, contrary to the previous study, selectivity for timing was strongly correlated with selectivity for identity. Taken together with the previous research, these results suggest that when reward features are correlated, OFC tends to "pack" them into unitary constructs, whereas when they are independent, OFC tends to "crack" them into separate constructs. Furthermore, we found that when both reward timing and flavor were changed, reward-responsive OFC neurons showed unique activity patterns preceding and during the omission of an expected reward. Interestingly, this OFC activity is similar and slightly preceded the ventral tegmental area dopamine (VTA DA) activity observed in a previous study ( Takahashi et al., 2023), consistent with the role of OFC in providing predictive information to VTA DA neurons.

Investigating insight and rigour as separate constructs in mathematical proof

ABSTRACT We investigate undergraduate mathematics students' conceptions of rigour and insight. We conducted comparative judgement experiments in which students were asked to judge different proofs of the same theorem with five separate criteria: rigour, insight, understanding, simplicity and assessment marks. We predicted, and our experiment found, that rigour is a reliable construct. We predicted that insight is also a reliable construct but asking students to judge on the basis of “which proof gives you more insight into why a theorem is true” did not result in a reliable judging scale. Our analysis suggests two distinct dimensions: rigour and marks contribute to one factor whereas simplicity and personal understanding relate to a second factor. We suggest reasons why insight was related almost equally to both factors. First, students may not have developed an aesthetic sense in which they appreciate insight in ways that are regularly discussed by mathematics educators. Second, insight may not be a coherent and well-defined construct after all.

Exploration of stress reactivity and fear conditioning on intrusive memory frequency in a conditioned-intrusion paradigm

Background and objectivesThe conditioned-intrusion paradigm was designed to provide insight into the relationship between fear conditioning and intrusive memory formation, which is relevant to understanding posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and treatment. However, boundary conditions of this new paradigm have not been explored and it is currently not known whether findings from this work are valid in a clinical context. MethodsIn the current study, we explored the relationship between stress reactivity to trauma film clips, usual exposure to violent media, renewal of fear conditioning using skin conductance as well as subjective ratings, and the effect of shock versus film clip during conditioning on the frequency of intrusive memories. An adapted fear conditioning paradigm using trauma clips as unconditional stimuli was used, and participants subsequently reported intrusive memories of the trauma clips. ResultsSkin conductance responses to conditioned stimuli paired with shocks and film clips were significantly higher than conditioned stimuli paired with film clips alone. Subjective stress reactivity, previous exposure to violent media, and film valence rating were associated with the frequency of intrusive memories. No aspects of fear conditioning were associated with intrusive memories, and factor analysis suggested the fear conditioning and stress related to film clip viewing were mostly separate constructs. Similarly, content and triggers of intrusive memories were usually film-clip related rather than conditional stimulus related. LimitationsWe did not observe strong conditioning effects of the unconditional stimuli to conditional stimuli, which were shapes rather than high frequency stimuli such as faces. ConclusionsThese findings provide potential boundary conditions for this paradigm and suggest multiple ways in which the validity of the paradigm can be tested in the future.

Multidimensionality of children’s foundational skills: an IRT-based validation of the NEPSY factorial structure

ABSTRACT Objective Measurement tools for children’s foundational skills provide important insights towards the developmental mechanisms of these domains. This study examines the structure of sensorimotor, visuospatial processing (VP), executive function (EF) skills and their interrelationship. The NEPSY is a widely-used neuropsychological instrument, but while validated at the domain-level through classical test theory approaches, no studies have conducted in-depth item-level analyses on its structural and psychometric properties. Method This study examined whether the designed structure of NEPSY is empirically supported by fitting unidimensional and multidimensional Item Response Theory models to item response data of early elementary students in the United States. A confirmatory factor analysis was also conducted to examine the factorial structure of the data. Results Results provide empirical support to the factorial structure of NEPSY, both at the domain level and within the VP sub-domain. The results show that VP and EF are separate constructs and subtests within the VP domain can further be modelled as interrelated but distinct factors – non-motor and motor-based processing. Conclusion Our specific results support the theoretical stance that VP consists of multiple component skills that are distinct because they require different neurological processes. This multidimensional NEPSY model shares some structural commonalities with the Cattell–Horn–Carroll model.

The influence of representations on task difficulty in organic chemistry: an exploration using a novel paired-items test instrument

ABSTRACT The intricate relationship between representational competence and content knowledge in organic chemistry has been widely debated, and the ways in which representations contribute to task difficulty, particularly in assessment, remain unclear. This paper presents a multiple-choice test instrument for assessing individuals’ knowledge of fundamental concepts – such as nomenclature and basic reaction mechanisms – in organic chemistry using item pairs with and without representations. We conducted a pilot test of the instrument with 55 undergraduate students and administered the final version to 357 undergraduate chemistry students from seven German universities. We used the Rasch methodology for psychometric analysis to identify sound and reliable test properties. A task-difficulty comparison revealed no differences between the item pairs with and those without representations. Hierarchical regression suggests that the complexity and cognitive processes involved in a task influence its difficulty. Our data suggest that the relationship between representational competence and content knowledge may not be disentangled when item difficulty is considered. We argue that representational competence and content knowledge might not represent separate constructs, which is in line with the literature on representational dilemmas: representations cannot be taught without content knowledge, and content knowledge cannot be taught without the use of representations.

Unveiling the underlying constructs of mobile assisted language learning technological pedagogical content knowledge (MALL TPACK): development and validation of a MALL TPACK scale for EFL teachers

ABSTRACT In the present study, a MALL TPACK questionnaire was developed and validated based on a TPACK framework. Data were collected from 414 EFL teachers. The development of the questionnaire involved a comprehensive review of existing literature, examination of existing questionnaires, and interviews with experts. This process resulted in an initial item pool of 50 questions. The questionnaire was subsequently administered to participants, and its construct validity and reliability were assessed employing various statistical methods. Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted with a subset of 200 participants, while Confirmatory Factor Analysis was performed with the remaining 214 participants. Additionally, the Cronbach’s alpha method was employed to evaluate the reliability of the instrument. The results indicated that participants were able to identify four constructs from the original TPACK framework: Pedagogical, content, and pedagogical content knowledge, as well as TPACK. However, knowledge of technology was divided into two separate constructs: Knowing technology and using technology. As a result, a six-factor solution with 37 items was developed and confirmed as a valid and reliable instrument for evaluating MALL TPACK levels among Iranian EFL instructors. These findings have important implications for future research and in the design of teacher professional development courses in Iranian EFL contexts.

Study of relations between cognitive closure and locus of control

The need for cognitive closure is a natural mental process leading to obtaining the most unambiguous information and cutting off incorrect, ambiguous, debatable, and uncertain data. The study poses the question whether the aspiration for the most specific information can be associated with locus of control, as a person’s subjective idea of the reasons for the situations happening to him. To test the assumption, we used: the test questionnaire “Diagnostics of partial positions of personal internality-externality” developed by E.F. Bazhin and colleagues based on the scale “Study of Subjective Control” by J. Rotter and the full version of the questionnaire “The Need for Cognitive Closure” by A. Kruglyansky, in Russian adaptation (M.I. Yasin, O.E. Khukhlaev). The sample consisted of 80 subjects aged from 19 to 26 years, university students. It was found that the “Decision” scale of the cognitive closedness questionnaire is positively related to “Internality” with values of r = 0.266, with p &lt; 0.018, and with an average degree of reliability (1-β) = 0.514. However, decisiveness is considered a separate construct that does not contribute to cognitive closure as such. The remaining four scales of the test of cognitive closure (“Striving for order”, “Striving for predictability”, “Avoiding duality” and “Striving for closed thinking” did not show significant connections with the locus of control (internality), that is, cognitive closure is not associated with the locus of control.

Mindreading quality versus quantity: A theoretically and empirically motivated two-factor structure for individual differences in adults' mindreading.

Existing methods for studying individual differences in adults' mindreading often lack good psychometric characteristics. Moreover, it remains unclear, even in theory, how mindreading varies in adults who already possess an understanding of mental states. In this pre-registered study, it was hypothesised that adults vary in their motivation for mindreading and in the degree to which their answers on mindreading tasks are appropriate (context-sensitive). These factors are confounded in existing measures as they do not differentiate between the frequency of mental state terms (MST), indicative of motivation, and the quality of an explanation. Using an innovative scoring system, the current study examined whether individual differences in adult undergraduate psychology students' (N = 128) answer quality and / or quantity of explicit references to others' mental states on two open-ended response mindreading tasks were separable constructs, accounted for by mindreading motivation, and related differentially to measures previously linked with mindreading (e.g., religiosity, loneliness, social network size). A two-factor and one-factor model both provided acceptable fit. Neither model showed significant associations with mindreading motivation. However, a two-factor model (with MST and response appropriateness loading onto separate factors) provided greater explanatory power. Specifically, MST was positively associated with religiosity and response appropriateness was negatively associated with religiosity, whilst the one-factor solution did not predict any socially relevant outcomes. This provides some indication that mindreading quantity and mindreading quality may be distinguishable constructs in the structure of individual differences in mindreading.

The role of trust and distrust in technology usage: An in-depth investigation of traffic information apps usage for mandatory and non-mandatory trips

Following the rapid pace of technological advancement and the continuous introduction of new technologies, the study of user acceptance has gained considerable attention. While previous studies have highlighted the role of trust in technology acceptance and adoption, the significance of distrust has received little attention and is often treated as the other end of the trust scale. This study aims to examine the separate roles of both trust and distrust in technology adoption by investigating the relationship between the usage of traffic information apps (TIAs) and the trust and distrust associated with them. To achieve this, a revealed preference questionnaire is designed, and data from a representative sample of 1028 Sydney residents is collected. The validity of treating trust and distrust as two separate constructs is empirically examined by contrasting a single-construct model versus a double-construct model. Both models are integrated choice and latent variable models with structural and choice components. The findings demonstrate that the model with trust and distrust as two distinct latent constructs outperforms the model with one latent construct. The results of the double latent construct model indicate that trust has a significant positive effect on using TIAs for both work and leisure trips, while distrust has a significant negative effect only for work trips. These findings underscore the importance of effectively managing distrust in technology, particularly in situations related to health and safety where individuals’ usage of the technology in these circumstances can save lives.

A Novel and Integrated Approach to Stakeholder Salience: Insights from the Tourism Sector in the Gilgit-Baltistan Province of Pakistan

ABSTRACT Stakeholder Salience (SS) framework is a tried and tested tool for stakeholder analysis in diverse policy settings. However, the original SS framework provides insights into whether a stakeholder possesses power, legitimacy, or urgency without indicating the level and nature of these attributes. To enrich our understanding of stakeholder salience framework, we introduce a nuanced approach by treating the three attributes as continuous variables. In doing so, we have imported and integrated various important frameworks and conceptualizations used earlier in policy analysis. Based on such an enhancement, we propose a typology of 48 stakeholders to better understand their significance, diversity, and constituents in the tourism sector of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Each attribute of stakeholders' salience is dealt as a separate construct measurable along a continuum. The enhanced framework enhances our comprehension of stakeholder dynamics, enabling more nuanced insights for tailored policy interventions in the tourism sector of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan.

Mediation in the Relation of Orthographic Processing on the Lexical and Sublexical Level with Reading and Spelling Skills. A Large Cross-Sectional Study in Elementary School Children in Germany

ABSTRACT Purpose Two types of orthographic knowledge were examined: i) knowledge of permissible letter combinations (general orthographic knowledge) and ii) knowledge of whole words (word-specific orthographic knowledge), to gain further insights into the relationship of general and word-specific orthographic knowledge with literacy skills. Method Mediation models were estimated using a sample of 2,636 3rd and 4th grade children (50.6% female, ethnic backgrounds were not surveyed) to examine whether general orthographic knowledge predicts reading fluency and spelling performance and whether this path is mediated by word-specific orthographic knowledge. Using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), we examined whether the responses to correctly spelled words/legal letter patterns and pseudohomophones/illegal letter patterns in word-specific and general orthographic knowledge tasks were generated by separate latent constructs. Results Our results confirm that word-specific orthographic knowledge is a facilitatory mediator in the relationship between general orthographic knowledge and literacy skills. The relationship of general and word-specific orthographic knowledge with literacy skills varies by item type, with a tendency toward higher correlations between literacy skills with pseudohomophones (vs words) and illegal (vs legal) pseudowords, which is in line with the two-factor solution of the CFA. Conclusion From a theoretical perspective, we conclude that general orthographic knowledge facilitates orthographic learning of words. From a methodological perspective, we encourage future researchers to distinguish between targets and foils in orthographic decision tasks.