Separate Collection Rates Research Articles

Measuring the eco-efficiency of municipal solid waste service: A fuzzy DEA model for handling missing data

In the last decades, evaluating the performance of municipal solid waste (MSW) service has attracted the interest of scholars and policymakers worldwide. This study adopts a generalized directional distance function (GDDF) data envelopment analysis (DEA) model to measure the eco-efficiency of 94 Apulian municipalities providing MSW service over 2019–2021. The model uses the α-cut method to handle missing data in a fuzzy DEA environment. During the period covered by the research, on average, the MSW eco-efficiency was between 0.825 and 0.879. The MSW separate collection rate is the only factor significantly affecting the MSW eco-efficiency.

Does a zero-waste strategy in sustainable urban waste management affect hierarchy targets and costs?

In this study, the effects and costs of adopting a zero-waste (ZW) strategy were evaluated. Using the propensity score matching method and data on Italian municipalities from 2019, our empirical analysis indicates that the separate collection rate was approximately 4% higher and urban unsorted waste was approximately 22–26 kg per capita lower for municipalities that have formally adopted the ZW strategy, confirming its effectiveness in fostering sustainable waste management. The cost for inhabitants was 13–16 euros higher for ZW municipalities than non-ZW municipalities, which confirms the importance of balancing through the sale of recycling materials.

A historical-technical analysis of packaging waste flows in Vienna

Urban waste management plays an important role in providing secondary raw materials for packaging waste recycling. To assess measures for this provision, material flows of packaging waste for 2006–2020 in Vienna were modeled and evaluated by the separate collection rate and sorting rate. Results showed increasing separate collection rates for the years 2006-2020 for plastic bottles (20%-35%), aluminum beverage packaging (10%-22%), and beverage cartons (10%-18%) achieved by commingled collection and more collection points. Values for other aluminum (6%-5%) and ferrous metal packaging (18%-16%), however, decreased. Glass packaging increased slightly (53%-55%) and paper packaging remained constant (56%). The sorting rate of metal packaging increased significantly due to bottom ash sorting. To increase the provision of secondary raw materials, better communication with consumers and the improvement of technical sorting of mixed waste and bottom ash should be implemented. Door-to-door collection of beverage cartons, metals, and plastics should be carefully tested and evaluated before implementation.

Separate collection rates for plastic packaging in Austria – A regional analysis taking collection systems and urbanization into account

According to the EU Circular Economy Package, recycling of plastic packaging waste (PPW) has to be enhanced significantly by 2025 and 2030. Although a set of measures will be required along the whole value chain of plastic packaging, the process of separate collection remains the backbone. Hence, a detailed understanding of the performance of current separate collection systems is crucial. As a case study, the separate collection of PPW was analyzed within a single country, Austria, where a variety of collection procedures are implemented. By using the method of material flow analysis, separate collection rates in terms of quantities and qualities were analyzed for separate collection systems of different settlement patterns, target fractions, and service levels provided. Results show that the highest performance was achieved in systems that cover mainly rural areas and where all plastic packaging wastes are collected through curbside collection, with separate collection rates of 74–77%. With additional collection via collection centers, these values increased to 78%-83%. In comparison, the results for urban areas showed the lowest separate collection rate of 56%. In the case that separate collection targeted plastic bottles only, maximum collection rates of around 50 % were observed, with the tendency towards higher collection rates if co-mingled with metals. To enhance separate collection, a general shift to the target fraction “all plastic packaging” instead of “plastic bottles only” is crucial. Modelling of optimized collection systems in all Austrian regions would lead to a theoretical total separation collection rate of 74%.

The factors affecting Italian provinces’ separate waste-collection rates: An empirical investigation

This paper investigates the factors affecting Italian provinces’ separate collection rates from 2007 to 2016, as these rates are relevant environmental performance indicators in urban waste management. We observe data spanning this decade from 103 Italian provinces and use panel data regressions to explore if and how some relevant socio-economic factors—including convictions for crimes committed against the public administration and many indicators of equitable and sustainable well-being that describe the quality of life in Italy—significantly affect provinces’ capability to reach European and national regulators’ separate collection rate targets. The results reveal that the greater the prosecuted crime committed against the public administration, average income, expected age, number of people with a diploma or a degree, and the percentage of female municipal administrators, the greater the separate waste collection rate. In contrast, the greater the number of household members, youth employment rate, total waste produced per capita, and the recourse for landfills, the lower the separate waste collection rate. These results highlight for policy-makers and waste utility managers the need to implement different strategies to increase the ability to meet expected targets and increase environmental performance, and thus, further increasing the quality of life.

Poor performance in municipal recycling: The case of Chile.

As part of the global effort to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), countries are attempting to minimize landfilling, and instead, promote recycling. The percentage of household waste collected for recycling and mass (metric tonnes) of recyclable material collected by municipalities have been defined as indicators to measure progress. However, by 2019, data were available for only 70 of the 193 United Nations' member states and most of the data accounts for countries in the Global North. Presented here are the first national, and locally disaggregated municipal recycling data from Chile. Between 2013 and 2017, less than 0.8 per cent of total household waste was separatedly collected for recycling. An econometric model is used to analyse factors influencing local-level separate collection among municipalities that have a recycling service. The variance of separate collection rates is explained by education, total residual waste sent to landfills, duration of recycling services, composting, percentage of urban population, and by regional disparities.

Why do Spanish households separate their e-waste for proper disposal? An econometric analysis

Improving e-waste separate collection rates is of the utmost importance to achieve the environmental targets set in the Sustainable Development Goals. Therefore, this paper aims to identify the factors influencing the intentions of Spanish households to separate their e-waste for proper disposal. To this end, we carry out an econometric analysis revealing that the preoccupation with environmental issues is an endogenous regressor, so a bivariate model is required to avoid inconsistent results. The analysis shows that environmental concern and the origin of the individuals are relevant factors that influence the e-waste separation decision. Additionally, we observe an interaction between age and city size, so the effect of one of these factors on the probability of separating e-waste depends on the other factor. Another important result is that several socio-economic variables and knowledge of environmental issues only indirectly affect attitudes, by way of environmental concern. In summary, this study offers a useful methodology to policymakers who have to deal with e-waste management, allowing them to identify the priority groups on which should be focused, as well as to design specific measures tailored to their characteristics.

Assessment of the energy recovery potential of municipal solid waste under future scenarios

Rules on separate collection and recycling of municipal solid waste (MSW) can have a significant impact on the waste-to-energy (WTE) industry. Understanding the future energy recovery potential of MSW is therefore paramount to establish the role of WTE technologies in waste management plans. In this study we applied material flow analysis (MFA) to systematically quantify the energy recovery potential of MSW under plausible scenarios for 2030. These scenarios describe structural changes that are expected to affect the energy recovery potential, such as the increase in the separate collection rates and the implementation of more efficient material recovery facilities (MRFs). The assessment was performed for Madrid, Spain, as a case study. The results reveal that the gross energy recovery potential of MSW, i.e. the maximum amount of energy that could be obtained, is likely to decrease in the future mainly due to a higher diversion of plastic, paper, and cardboard to recycling. The gross energy recovery potential of the MSW generated in Madrid by 2030 ranges from 4,963 to 6,984 TJ year−1 according to the scenarios defined in this study. This means a decrease of 34 – 7% compared with 2017. However, the waste streams susceptible to energy recovery –organic waste streams and MRFs’ rejects– account for 48 – 60% of the MSW generated under the 2030 scenarios. Furthermore, the electricity generation potential could increase between 8 and 55% by 2030 with respect to 2017 if more efficient incineration and/or gasification facilities are implemented. All in all, our findings clearly suggest that recycling targets do not necessarily compromise energy recovery.

Does national environmental regulation promote convergence in separate waste collection? Evidence from Italy

In the European Union, which is increasingly oriented towards environmentally sustainable development, separate waste collection plays a crucial role. Over the years, the EU has produced several guidelines, programmes and directives aimed to build a green society and tone down the differences between, as well as within, Member States. In Italy, the waste management system is currently regulated by Legislative Decree 152/2006, through which European directives have been incorporated into the Italian law. The existing literature has focused on the effects of L.D. 152/2006 on Separate Waste Collection (SWC) rates; however, there are not previous studies on the effects of this decree on growth rates and on convergence process among regions in terms of SWC and its items (i.e., organic, plastic, paper, and glass). This paper aims to fill these gaps. For this purpose, we implement β- and σ-convergence analysis based on Generalised Method of Moments (GMM) on official Italian regional data over the period 2001–2018. Results show that Legislative Decree 152/2006 has two contrasting effects: on the one hand, it helped increase separate waste collection; on the other hand, it slowed down the convergence process in terms of separate waste collection among the Italian regions. However, the convergence process is characterised by different speeds across Italian macro-areas (Northern, Central, and Southern Italy), highlighting a three-speed country. To foster convergence, the national legislation should consider regional differences in terms of economic, infrastructural, institutional, social, and demographic characteristics.

Waste services' performance assessment: The case of Tuscany, Italy

This paper assesses the performance of waste services in the region of Tuscany in Italy. It adopts non-parametric techniques for this purpose. Furthermore, it investigates the influence of the operational environment on the estimated performance by using the robust order-m technique. Meaningful levels of inefficiency were found in the Italian waste services. A specification of the ownership of the operator entrusted with waste management by municipalities and the formal adoption of the zero-waste strategy are included as environmental variables.The study concludes that the influence of the operational environment is a determinant of performance. The income per capita is negatively associated with efficiency, while population density is positively associated. Furthermore, efficiency levels are lower for municipalities with higher mixed waste per capita produced. Improving good pro-environmental behaviours is likely to improve efficiency and, thus, tariffs. The empirical results support the idea that it is necessary to make relevant organizational decisions that imply higher costs to increase the refuse collection rate. An increase in the separate collection rate beyond 50% is associated with the reduction of the efficiency level reached. Efficiency analysis does not consider the additional costs and the opportunities for municipalities to get revenues by selling them as secondary raw materials. Besides, the adoption of a zero-waste strategy is related to higher efficiency in MSW service provision. Finally, results about the ownership issue support the idea that privatization is not necessarily associated with the performance improvement of the waste services.

The Circular Economy and Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste Recycling Strategies

Densely populated areas with large incoming populations have difficulty achieving high separate collection rates of municipal solid waste. The manuscript analyzes the link between biowaste collection and circular economy requirements as a fulfilment of the recycling rates and using biogas as a sustainable energy source. Three biowaste collection scenarios and three technical scenarios for its treatment are considered. The first scenario assumes only composting for biowaste treatment, the next includes also anaerobic digestion. In the years 2020–2050, the separate biowaste collection level will increase, depending on the scenario, from 26.9 kg/inh. up to 148.1kg/inh. By 2030, the quantity of biogas generated from biowaste can grow to almost 9 million m3/year, enabling the production of renewable energy at annual levels of almost 17 GWh and 69 TJ. Using the third scenario, the quantity of biogas generated grows more than twice (in 2035). If the capture rate of biowaste increases from 15% to 20% and then to 25%, the quantity of biogas generated grows by, respectively, 65% and more than 100%. Unfortunately, none of the scenarios enables the required municipal solid waste recycling rates in 2030 (60%) and 2035 (65%), which demonstrates the significant need to develop more effective separate collection systems, including biowaste. Methodology applied in the paper can be used for other cities and regions trying to meet circular economy demands.

Factors influencing municipal recycling in the Global South: The case of Chile

One of the targets from the Sustainable Development Goals is by 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse. The indicators defined to measure progress are the recycling rate and Tons of material recycled. Paradoxically, very little is known about these indicators and the factors influencing them outside rich countries, where recycling has been long ago adopted. This study provides the first analysis of factors linked to separate collection rates and kilograms recycled per capita from actually existing municipal recycling services in a Latin American country. Thanks to primary data collection, it is possible to characterise and analyse the Chilean case. By 2018, barely above half of the 345 local governments had implemented recycling. Furthermore, even among municipalities that have been recycling for at least 5 years, separate collection is much lower than in any OECD country with available data. Econometric models are used to test nine different hypotheses about factors influencing municipal recycling. Existence of kerbside separate collection, duration of recycling programs and per capita spending on waste management are found to be positively and significantly linked to separate collection rates. Collection frequency of landfill waste is significant and negatively linked to higher separate collection rates within municipalities, but the same link is not significant between local governments. Four of the Chilean regions are found to be significantly lagging behind compared to the Santiago Metropolitan Region. Variables that are not significant are existence of organic recycling, population density, total population and poverty rate.

Efficiency in waste management companies: A proposal to assess scale economies

This article analyzes the economic efficiency of waste management companies with the aim of verifying the existence of scale economies with respect to separate waste collection preceding reuse, recycling, and recovery. For this purpose, an approach based on partial elasticity is used for a group of companies providing waste management services throughout Italy. Results show that the greater the separate waste collection rate, the higher the total costs incurred by the analyzed companies; this relationship is non-linear since a rise in the separate waste collection rate increases total costs less than proportionally, which gives evidence for the existence of scale economies. The findings also reveal that such a cost advantage is strengthened by a positive interaction effect with population density. These results show that a significant increase in separate waste collection rate could be realized in an efficient way and, thus, without jeopardizing companies’ economic sustainability, which is essential to continue ensuring such important services for the community. One of the main implications of these results concerns policy makers: considering the population density impact, working in certain territories can be more economically convenient for companies; thus, policy makers should support those firms that could be penalized by the contextual conditions.

LCA of a Consortium-Based MSW Management System to Quantify the Decrease in Environmental Impacts Achieved for Increasing Separate Collection Rates and Other Modifications

In this study, the collection, transport, and treatment phases (including the management of products and processing residues) of six fractions of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in the Sinistra Piave Basin (Veneto, Italy), a consortium of 44 municipalities, were analyzed by life-cycle assessment (LCA). Specifically, two different scenarios were assessed for paper and cardboard, glass, multi-material (plastics and metals), food waste, garden waste, and dry residual fraction management, one referring to the year 2015 and the other to 2004. The primary aim was to investigate what consequences the increase in separate collection rates progressively achieved by the consortium (65% in 2004 versus to 80% in 2015) exerted on the management system and its potential environmental impacts. For each scenario, the type of separate collection method employed (door-to-door in 2015, and mixed door-to-door and curbside collection in 2004), the collected amounts, the geographic location of the main sorting/treatment plants, and the type of treatments applied to manage the products and processing residues were considered. The results of the study indicate that, among the variations that occurred in the management system for the two considered years, the increase in separate collection rate achieved was the factor that most affected all of the potential environmental impacts taken into account. In particular, for the 2015 scenario, differently from the 2004 one, all of the categories considered (apart from ecotoxicity) were negative, indicating savings instead of impacts. Treatment was the stage that by far mostly affected potential environmental savings, with regard to paper and cardboard recycling in particular.

Improving waste production and recycling through zero-waste strategy and privatization: An empirical investigation

Using a large 2012–2015 cross-sectional dataset for all 279 municipalities in Tuscany, Italy (the location of the first municipality in Europe to adopt a zero-waste strategy in 2007), this study investigates whether and how municipal waste production and re-cycling activities are related to two waste management policies of municipalities: the adoption of a zero-waste strategy and ownership type of the entity entrusted with urban waste management services. Population density, the municipal average age of inhabitants, municipality area, and the average taxable income of individuals per capita are considered as control variables in the panel data regression models. The study demonstrates the relevance of municipal policies on waste management performance. Specifically, the results show that municipal waste production is higher when urban waste services are managed by privately owned companies, as well as when the average taxable income of individuals per capita is lower. The adoption of a zero-waste strategy by municipalities significantly improves the separate collection rate in Tuscan municipalities. Municipalities that have entrusted solid waste collection and disposal services to mixed-owned firms have lower rates of separate collection than do municipalities that directly manage the service or entrust it to publicly owned firms. Furthermore, the separate collection rate is higher where population density and the average taxable income of individuals per capita are higher. The analysis helps policy and decision makers to identify policies with higher probabilities of reducing waste production and improving the separate collection rate, thereby reaching high standards of waste reduction and recycling.

The effect of environmental attitudes and policies on separate waste collection: the case of Insular Italy

This paper investigates the factors determining waste management performance by comparing two Italian regions, Sicily and Sardinia. Using data from official records at the municipal level, the recentered influence function regression is implemented to evaluate the territorial divide in separate waste collection rates between the regions. Then, the divide is disentangled into administrative and spatial components. The administrative component evaluates the effectiveness of the strategic policies set by the regional authority and their implementation by municipalities. The spatial component captures the presence of spatial contagion effect and considers citizens’ pro-environmental behaviours. The main results show that Sardinia has achieved better performance because of its advantages of extrinsic motivations, citizens’ pro-environmental attitudes, local institutional quality, and synergy between citizens and local governments. In Sicily, the weakness of local institutions makes citizens’ participation difficult and generates citizens’ indifference towards environmental issues, explaining most of the failures in the regional waste management.

Do the rich recycle more? Understanding the link between income inequality and separate waste collection within metropolitan areas

The existence of inequality within societies makes one expect to observe an income gap in cities. However, it is not clear whether the income gap translates or not into a recycling gap. Barcelona and London are compared to characterise the income-recycling nexus within cities. On the one hand, in Barcelona, although the income gap is smaller, separate collection rates reproduce income disparities between local authorities. On the other hand, in London, a bigger income gap is not translated into separate collection rates. Evidence is provided to hypothesise that this difference is linked to their service financing regime. The idea that the rich recycle more because of being more educated or having different consumption patterns should be re-examined under institutional lenses. If the rich recycle more, it might be just because of regressive distribution of municipal resources. It is urgent to consider distributional issues when designing metropolitan recycling policies. Otherwise, transitions to sustainable urban environments might be restricted to affluent areas within cities.

The good and the bad: Identifying homogeneous groups of municipalities in terms of separate waste collection determinants in Italy

The European Commission identifies separate waste collection as a primary factor in its sustainable development strategy. The EU Member States are expected to achieve a separate waste collection rate of 50% by 2020. Although Italy is not very far from such target, it features wide regional variation in the extent of separate collection. Municipal administrations are the key managerial units for the implementation of the environmental policy. By means of the Classification and Regression Tree Analysis, this work assembles Italian municipalities (NUTS-4) into homogenous groups, that share common characteristics with respect to geographic, economic and socio-cultural covariates. Three benchmark regions are identified, i.e. Veneto, Sardinia and much of Campania. The results achieved in these areas depend on the joint action of citizens and institutions and may inspire local-level waste management policies in other areas of the country.

Evaluating waste collection management: the case of macro-areas and municipalities in Italy

The purpose of the present paper is to analyse the gap among Italian macro-areas performances in terms of separate waste collection rate and density of separate waste collection. The aim is twofold: (1) to investigate if clear and effective infrastructure policies, in Southern Italy, have been realized that are able to reduce the gap in the separate waste collection process with the rest of Italy and (2) to evaluate if Southern Italian municipalities have improved their operational capacity in the separate waste collection process. In particular, we exploit data collected in 2012 by several Italian sources (ISPRA and ISTAT). We implement a recentered influence function regression technique that allows us to put two macro-areas in comparison (North vs. South and Centre vs. South). This technique, once measured the territorial gaps, allows to disentangle the gap in the two spatial units of analysis (at municipalities level and at macro-areas level). The estimates suggest that while in the North the issue of waste is managed effectively and responsibly with respect to the Southern area, the latter has exhibited an advantage with respect to the Central Italy; furthermore, Southern municipalities appear to be unable to pursue a virtuous waste management system generating the persistence of a marked territorial gap in terms of both SCR and DSC. The main policy implications are discussed.

Is there an environmentally optimal separate collection rate?

Material recycling often leads to environmental benefits when compared to thermal treatments or landfilling and is therefore positioned in the waste hierarchy as the third priority after waste prevention and reuse. To assess the environmental impacts of recycling and the related substitution of primary material, linear steady-state models of physical flows are typically used. In reality, the environmental burdens of collection and recycling are likely to be a non-linear function of the collection rate. This short communication aims at raising awareness of the non-linear effects in separate collection systems and presents the first non-linear quantitative model for PET bottle recycling. The influence of collection rates on the material quality and the transport network is analyzed based on the data collected from industrial partners. The results highlight that in the present Swiss recycling system a very high collection rate close to 100% yields optimum environmental benefits with respect to global warming. The empirical data, however, provided indications for a decrease in the marginal environmental benefit of recycling. This can be seen as an indication that tipping points may exist for other recycling systems, in which the environmental benefits from substituting primary materials are less pronounced than they are for PET.