Sentence Level Research Articles

Analyzing political party positions through multi-language twitter text embeddings.

Traditional monolingual word embedding models transform words into high-dimensional vectors which represent semantics relations between words as relationships between vectors in the high-dimensional space. They serve as productive tools to interpret multifarious aspects of the social world in social science research. Building on the previous research which interprets multifaceted meanings of words by projecting them onto word-level dimensions defined by differences between antonyms, we extend the architecture of establishing word-level cultural dimensions to the sentence level and adopt a Language-agnostic BERT model (LaBSE) to detect position similarities in a multi-language environment. We assess the efficacy of our sentence-level methodology using Twitter data from US politicians, comparing it to the traditional word-level embedding model. We also adopt Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) to investigate detailed topics in these tweets and interpret politicians' positions from different angles. In addition, we adopt Twitter data from Spanish politicians and visualize their positions in a multi-language space to analyze position similarities across countries. The results show that our sentence-level methodology outperform traditional word-level model. We also demonstrate that our methodology is effective dealing with fine-sorted themes from the result that political positions towards different topics vary even within the same politicians. Through verification using American and Spanish political datasets, we find that the positioning of American and Spanish politicians on our defined liberal-conservative axis aligns with social common sense, political news, and previous research. Our architecture improves the standard word-level methodology and can be considered as a useful architecture for sentence-level applications in the future.

DDCO model based false news detection research

With the rapid development of the information age, while the popularity of social media brings great convenience, it also brings some negative effects, such as the spread of false news. At present, the identification of fake news is still based on the personal screening ability, therefore, the intelligent and information-based automatic detection algorithm has become one of the hot issues of current research. Based on the characteristics of DCAN and DEFEND models, this paper proposes an novel model DDCO, which uses multi-layer collaborative attention mechanism to extract the most relevant information from the three dimensions of sentence level, word level and sentence-comment level respectively. Finally, the model designed in this paper is tested on Weibo and Twitter data sets, and the results show that the DDCO has a higher accuracy than the existing models, which provides an important reference for false news detection.

مشاكل القواعد في ترجمة مجموعة قصة قصيرة "أرنى الله" لتوفيق الحكيم في موضوع الحب

The problem in this research is the grammatical problem found in the translation of the short story collection of Arinillah by Taufik Hakim. This study aims to determine (1) the number of grammatical problems, (2) the types of grammatical problems, and to describe (3) the relationship between the translated text and the theory of grammatical problems found in Arinillah's short stories with the theme of love. Based on the data sources studied, the researcher found grammatical problems in the level of phrases and sentences found in four short story titles with the theme of love. The results of this study are tarkib washfi, tarkib idhafi, atahf mathuf, taukid, simple sentences, complete sentences, and complex sentences in a collection of short stories titled Taufik Hakim Arinillah. The short stories contain Taufik Hakim's philosophical thoughts which are good for the development of today's mindset

초급 중국인 학습자의 ‘안’, ‘못’ 부정표현 습득 양상 연구

Negation is one of the most fundamental and crucial aspects in Korean language learning. However, Chinese learners often make many errors when learning Korean negation. Due to Chinese and Korean are two totally different languages, Korean is an agglutinative language while Chinese is an isolating language, Chinese learners face difficulties in learning Korean negation. Representative negations in Korean include ‘안’ and ‘못’, while in Chinese, they are represented by ‘不’ and ‘没’. However, the negations in both languages do not correspond completely. Although there are similarities, there are also many differences. Therefore, Chinese learners often make errors in using Korean negations by the influence of their native language.
 This study aims to examine the acquisition and error patterns of negations when Chinese beginners use the negations ‘안’ and ‘못’. Firstly, learners were given tasks at the sentence and discourse levels. Through the analysis of the results, the types of errors made by the learners were examined. According to the results, there are three types of errors: substitution errors between ‘안’ and ‘못’, errors in the use of ‘안’ as a single negation form, and errors related to past tense. The causes of the errors were analyzed, and suggestions for resolving the errors were provided. I hope that this study will contribute to future education on Korean negations.

ПОНЯТТЯ НАДМІРНОСТІ В МОВІ ТА В СКЛАДНОМУ БАГАТОКОМПОНЕНТНОМУ РЕЧЕННІ

The article examines lexical, grammatical and stylistic manifestations of excess in modern Ukrainian artistic discourse. A defi nition of the phenomenon of redundancy, in-cluding their lexical, grammatical and stylistic types, is proposed. The specifi cs of their application at the level of a complex multi-component sentence are outlined. Excessive el-ements are used to emphasize the statement and have a pragmatic eff ect on the addressee.The theoretical apparatus discussed in the article allows us to diff erentiate pleonasm as an excess of means that serves to convey the lexical or grammatical content of an utterance, manifests itself in repetition, synonymous duplication of lexemes or grammatical forms, as well as in too verbose conveying of content. The concept of tautology, which is tangential to the defi nition of pleonasm, is interpreted as a stylistic fi gure aimed at strengthening a phenomenon or sign. The basis of this technique is the repeated designation of what was said earlier in a diff erent form. Emphasis is placed on the fact that the use of repetitions in the text or partial duplication of content improves the style and gives the statement clarity and specifi cation. On the basis of the descriptive method used in the work, it was established that repeated words demonstrate the gradation of feelings, understandings and depth of experi-ences. In order to increase the impact on the perception of the text, to give it greater drama and expressiveness, modern writers widely use anaphora, or monologue. In addition, artistic texts are not devoid of such a stylistic fi gure as polysyndeton, or multiple conjunction, which is a means of demonstrating solemnity, expressing and enhancing lyricism and showing the author’s thoughts. At the time, the authors consciously used the analyzed technique, which, in our opinion, is fully justifi ed and motivated.The analysis of the given examples proved: despite the possibility of avoiding repetitions, the authors consciously use fi gures of excess, which are fully justifi ed and motivated. They are a means of artistic expressiveness of current events and the au-thor’s objective attitude to the world; contribute to revealing the nature of inner feel-ings; enrich the text with expression, as well as clarify what was said, intensify signs and actualize the actions presented in the text and at the syntactic level manifested in various types of complex multi-component sentences.

Judgements of EFL Students on English Stress Placement

The purposes of the study were to investigate the knowledge related to the stress in English at the word level and the sentence level gained by 2nd – 4th year Thai students majoring in English and to compare the scores of the knowledge test obtained by the students with different years of their study and different faculties of their affiliations. The randomly selected sample consisted of 190 participants out of 321 volunteers, the 2nd - 4th year English majors. The research instrument was a Test to Measure the Knowledge of English Stress (TMKES) at the word and sentence levels used to collect the data, and the statistics that were utilized to analyze the data included frequency, mean, standard deviations, and One-Way ANOVA. The findings of the study showed that students who took the test were able to score over half of the total on average. The students’ competence in English stress was not significantly different due to their different years of study. However, the students who were affiliated with different faculties had the significantly different competence in English word stress excluding English sentence stress. Additionally, when the scores of both the word stress and the sentence stress were combined, there was a statistically significant difference owing to the distinguishable affiliations.

Error Analysis in EFL Students’ Writing Skill

"Error Analysis" looks at actual errors, explains them linguistically, and explains some of the possible causes of the errors to provide an understanding of the processes underlying the second language acquisition area. The purpose of this current study is to assess, describe and analyze errors committed by students. The researchers followed the error analysis methodology proposed by Corder (1973). It was to recognize, describe and explain errors in terms of their causes. After that, errors will be evaluated. For this purpose, a written test was performed on the study samples. The aim of the study is to analyze the linguistic errors in the writing skills of EFL students in an Egyptian high school, namely the Future high school. Two instruments were applied in this study: written tasks and a semi-structured interview. For error analysis, eighty written tasks by a group of 20 students were collected and analyzed. The results showed that the frequently committed errors were at the sentential level as well as the word level. The most frequent errors were the errors of spelling, and the least were the errors of demonstratives. The marked errors were categorized as errors of omission, addition, misinformation, and disordering. Further analysis of the collected data from the semi-structured interview indicated interlingual interference, intralingual interference, inadequate practice in English writing and carelessness of students as the major sources of the errors. Hence, the study has pedagogical implications as it will help teachers to devise appropriate measures for improving the students’ writing proficiency.

Dependency-based BERT for Chinese Event Argument Extraction

Existing event extraction methods independently identify and classify each argument role separately, ignoring the interdependence between different parameter roles. Further, these methods rely on simple vectors to represent word embeddings. By embedding explicit syntactic constraints in the attention mechanism, we address these shortcomings by using dependency syntax to guide the text modeling. Specifically, we use dependency syntax to guide the BERT model for Chinese event argument role extraction, which mainly consists of three stages. First, the self-attention method guided by a dependency syntactic parsing tree is embedded in the Transformer computing framework of the BERT model. In addition to obtaining a deep two-way linguistic representation of a word according to its context information, this method also expresses the long-distance syntactic dependency relationships between words based on context information. Secondly, the designed conditional layer normalization method is applied to the event argument extraction model in order to integrate the semantic information of trigger words into the text, thereby improving the accuracy of the argument role extraction. Lastly, conditional random fields (CRFs) are used to determine the optimal sequence of labels at the sentence level based on the dependence relationships between adjacent labels. According to the experimental results, the constructed model outperforms several strong baselines in the Chinese event argument extraction task on the ACE2005 dataset and the iFLYTEKA.I.2020 dataset.

A FEMINIST-STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF THE TAYLOR SWIFT SONG ENTITLED THE MAN

The Man song by Taylor Swift focuses on kinds of feminism and explains about feminism expressed about women’s social aspects. This research is intended to find out the message of The Man song based on Mills' perspective on feminist stylistics. The lyrics in this song are the main object of research. The song presents the perspective of a woman reflecting on how her life would be different if she were a man. This research employs a qualitative content analysis by presenting data in the form of descriptions and tables. The objectives of this research include examining how the song expresses writing styles related to gender across three levels: word level, sentence level, and discourse level. It was found that The Man by Taylor Swift conveys a message about gender inequality or feminism, stereotypes, and gender roles in society. The song strongly highlights the observable differences in the lives of women and men and also double standards. The words, phrases and sentences chosen explain the gaps and challenges faced by women in society, thereby encouraging listeners to question and challenge these norms.

A mixed Rasch model analysis of multiple profiles in L2 writing

The present study used the Mixed Rasch Model (MRM) to identify multiple profiles in L2 students’ writing with regard to several linguistic features, including content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics. To this end, a pool of 500 essays written by English as a foreign language (EFL) students were rated by four experienced EFL teachers using the Empirically-derived Descriptor-based Diagnostic (EDD) checklist. The ratings were subjected to MRM analysis. Two distinct profiles of L2 writers emerged from the sample analyzed including: (a) Sentence-Oriented and (b) Paragraph-Oriented L2 Writers. Sentence-Oriented L2 Writers tend to focus more on linguistic features, such as grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics, at the sentence level and try to utilize these subskills to generate a written text. However, Paragraph-Oriented Writers are inclined to move beyond the boundaries of a sentence and attend to the structure of a whole paragraph using higher-order features such as content and organization subskills. The two profiles were further examined to capture their unique features. Finally, the theoretical and pedagogical implications of the identification of L2 writing profiles and suggestions for further research are discussed.

‘Great work folks!’: establishing interpersonal communication in transparent peer reviews of research articles

In this paper, we examine how referees establish interpersonal relationships by mitigating criticism and expressing compliments as a realization of politeness strategies through the analysis of a specific corpus of transparent peer review reports (TPRs) with 220 reports totaling approximately 200,000 words. For the analysis, employing a framework drawn primarily on Brown and Levinson’s (1987) politeness strategies and following a detailed review of the literature, we coded all occurrences of politeness strategies using UAM Corpus Tool 3.3x (O’Donnell, 2021). Conducting intercoder/intracoder reliability tests, we identified and interpreted a variety of politeness strategies at the sentence and discourse levels, which were used for mitigating criticism and expressing compliments. Our results suggest that reviewers resorted to a variety of politeness strategies, predominantly negative politeness strategies, to mitigate their criticism directed at the authors of manuscripts. This is significant especially in the light of earlier studies where reviewer reports appeared to include some blunt/hurtful comments due partly to the anonymity of the reviewing process. Rather than focusing on just communicating criticism or a required change, reviewers were found to have cared about politeness and seemed to achieve interpersonal communication goals in TPRs by means of favoring an egalitarian approach rather than an authoritative one, supporting Gosden’s (2003) argument on the interpersonal aspect of reviewing discourse. This research contributes to our understanding of how criticism in TPRs can be conveyed without imposing, leading to encouraging, constructive and polite reports in English as part of science communication, especially when the review reports are publicly available.

Multimodal aspects of sentence comprehension: Do facial and color cues interact with processing negated and affirmative sentences?

Negation is usually considered as a linguistic operator reversing the truth value of a proposition. However, there are various ways to express negation in a multimodal manner. It still remains an unresolved issue whether nonverbal expressions of negation can influence linguistic negation comprehension. Based on extensive evidence demonstrating that language comprehenders are able to instantly integrate extralinguistic information such as a speaker's identity, we expected that nonverbal cues of negation and affirmation might similarly affect sentence comprehension. In three preregistered experiments, we examined how far nonverbal markers of negation and affirmation-specifically, the so-called "not face" (see Benitez-Quiroz et al., 2016) and red or green color (see Dudschig et al., 2023)-interact with comprehending negation and affirmation at the sentential level. Participants were presented with photos ("not face" vs. positive control; Experiments 1 and 2) or color patches (red vs. green; Experiment 3). They then read negated and affirmative sentences in a self-paced manner or judged the sensibility of negated and affirmative sentences (e.g., "No, I do not want to sing" vs. "Yes, I would like to buy a sofa"). Both frequentist statistics and Bayes factors resulting from linear mixed-effects analyses showed that processing times for negated and affirmative sentences were not significantly modulated by the nonverbal features under investigation. This indicates that their influence might not extend to sentential negation or affirmation comprehension. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Reading for Meaning: The Influence of Reader Characteristics on Paragraph Understanding in Aphasia.

The study improves our understanding of the reading comprehension difficulties seen in people with aphasia. It investigates the influence of reader characteristics, including personal demographic variables, and linguistic and wider cognitive skills, on text comprehension. Seventy-five people with aphasia and 87 neurologically typical readers completed a test of paragraph comprehension. People with aphasia also completed background tests of language, attention, recognition memory, and executive functions. The influence of demographic variables (age, gender, and level of education) was analyzed separately in the group of people with aphasia and the typical readers using analyses of variance. In the people with aphasia, the relationship between paragraph comprehension and the language and cognitive tests was explored using correlational analyses. In the typical readers, there was a significant effect of gender and level of education and a significant three-way interaction. For the people with aphasia, there were no significant effects of demographic variables. Significant positive correlations were found between performance on paragraph comprehension and each of the language tests and with tests of auditory attention, executive functions, and recognition memory for words. In people with aphasia, the effects of demographic variables were overshadowed by the effect of their language difficulties. The association seen across language measures reflects the shared semantic representations across single-word, sentence, and text levels, across modalities. The study emphasizes the importance of attention, executive functions, and short-term memory in the comprehension of and memory for what we read. The contribution of both language difficulties and wider cognitive skills needs to be considered when planning intervention. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24695451.

Can orange colour facilitate the processing of happiness? An exploration study on happiness metaphor.

Colour is a ubiquitous perceptual stimulus, and theoretical models of colour and psychological functioning posit that colour plays a key role in influencing the behaviour and mental function of a person. One investigation and two experiments investigated the colour metaphor representation of happiness concepts and the mapping mode of the colour metaphor of happiness concepts. A questionnaire was conducted to explore the relationship between colour preference and happiness. Study 2 shows that the identification of happiness words was facilitated more when words were viewed on an orange background than when viewed on a blue background. Study 3 further verifies the links of the connection between colour and happiness at the sentence level, and the orange-happiness facilitation effect was replicated. These results document a novel influence of colour on emotion recognition processes, where an orange background may facilitate the processing of the concept of happiness and provide support for conceptual metaphor theory and colour-in-context theory.

Revealing People’s Sentiment in Natural Italian Language Sentences

Social network systems are constantly fed with text messages. While this enables rapid communication and global awareness, some messages could be aptly made to hurt or mislead. Automatically identifying meaningful parts of a sentence, such as, e.g., positive or negative sentiments in a phrase, would give valuable support for automatically flagging hateful messages, propaganda, etc. Many existing approaches concerned with the study of people’s opinions, attitudes and emotions and based on machine learning require an extensive labelled dataset and provide results that are not very decisive in many circumstances due to the complexity of the language structure and the fuzziness inherent in most of the techniques adopted. This paper proposes a deterministic approach that automatically identifies people’s sentiments at the sentence level. The approach is based on text analysis rules that are manually derived from the way Italian grammar works. Such rules are embedded in finite-state automata and then expressed in a way that facilitates checking unstructured Italian text. A few grammar rules suffice to analyse an ample amount of correctly formed text. We have developed a tool that has validated the proposed approach by analysing several hundreds of sentences gathered from social media: hence, they are actual comments given by users. Such a tool exploits parallel execution to make it ready to process many thousands of sentences in a fraction of a second. Our approach outperforms a well-known previous approach in terms of precision.

Deficient central mechanisms in tinnitus: Exploring the impact on speech comprehension and executive functions

Many individuals with chronic subjective tinnitus report significant problems in comprehending speech in adverse listening situations. A large body of studies has provided evidence to support the notion that deficits in speech-in-noise (SIN) are prevalent in the tinnitus population, while some studies have challenged these findings. Elemental auditory perception is usually only minimally or not impaired. In addition, deficits in cognitive functions, particularly executive functions, have also been observed in individuals with tinnitus. Given these previous findings, we theorize that deficient central mechanisms may be responsible for the reported speech comprehension problems in tinnitus.25 participants suffering from chronic subjective tinnitus and 25 control participants, between 23 and 58 years of age, were examined in a cross-sectional design. The groups were case-matched for age, sex, education, and hearing loss. A large audiometric battery was used ranging from threshold and supra-threshold tasks to spoken sentence level speech tasks. Additionally, four cognitive tests were performed, primarily covering the area of executive functions. Tinnitometry and tinnitus-related questionnaires were applied to complement sample description and allow for secondary analyses. We hypothesized that tinnitus participants score lower in complex speech comprehension tasks and executive function tasks compared to healthy controls, while no group differences in elementary audiometric tasks were expected.As expected, individuals with chronic subjective tinnitus scored lower in the SIN and gated speech task, while there were no differences in the basic speech recognition threshold task and the other elementary auditory perception tasks. The cognitive tests revealed clear deficits in interference control in the Stroop task, but not in the Flanker task, in the tinnitus group. There were no differences in inhibition or working memory tasks.Our results clearly delineate differences between tinnitus individuals and control participants in two tests on speech intelligibility under adverse listening conditions. Further, the poorer performance in a task of interference control in individuals with tinnitus points towards an impaired central executive control in individuals with tinnitus. Taken together, our (partly) exploratory study provides novel evidence to the view that deficient central executive system in individuals with tinnitus probably account for impaired speech comprehension.

Metaphor analysis meets lexical strings: finetuning the metaphor identification procedure for quantitative semantic analyses.

Recent years have witnessed the development of the Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP/VU), a step-by-step protocol designed to identify metaphorically-used words in discourse. However, MIP(VU)'s merits notwithstanding, the procedure poses a problem to scholars intending to use its output as the basis for a semantic field analysis involving a quantitative component. Depending on the research question, metaphor analysts may be interested in chunks of language situated above the procedure's standardized level of analysis (i.e., the lexical unit or lexeme), including phrases and sentences. Yet, attempts to decenter the method's exclusive focus on metaphor-related words have been the target of critique, among others on the grounds of their lack of clear unit-formation guidelines and, hence, their inconsistent unit of analysis and measurement. Drawing on data derived from a Spanish-language US-based newspaper's coverage of the migration program known as DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals), this article describes challenges that analysts can run into when attempting to use a dataset containing atomized metaphor-related words as the input for subsequent quantitative semantic analyses. Its main methodological contribution consists in a proposal and illustration of three possible methods to extend the existing MIP(VU)-protocol in such a way as to allow it to capture metaphorical strings, on top of lexemes, in a reliable and systematic manner. The first two methods are procedural, and entail formulating a-priori grouping-directives based on the research question(s). One departs from semasiological criteria (Method 1) and the other takes an onomasiological approach (Method 2). The third method works bottom-up, involving the ad hoc grouping of lexemes and adding a descriptive parameter meant to keep track of grouping-decisions made by the analyst, thereby safeguarding transparency at all times.

Designing remote synchronous auditory comprehension assessment for severely impaired individuals with aphasia.

The use of telepractice in aphasia research and therapy is increasing in frequency. Teleassessment in aphasia has been demonstrated to be reliable. However, neuropsychological and clinical language comprehension assessments are not always readily translatable to an online environment and people with severe language comprehension or cognitive impairments have sometimes been considered to be unsuitable for teleassessment. This project aimed to produce a battery of language comprehension teleassessments at the single word, sentence and discourse level suitable for individuals with moderate-severe language comprehension impairments. Assessment development prioritised response consistency and clinical flexibility during testing. Teleassessments were delivered in PowerPoint over Zoom using screen sharing and remote control functions. The assessments were evaluated in 14 people with aphasia and 9 neurotypical control participants. Modifiable assessment templates are available here: https://osf.io/r6wfm/. People with aphasia were able to engage in language comprehension teleassessment with limited carer support. Only one assessment could not be completed for technical reasons. Statistical analysis revealed above chance performance in 141/151 completed assessments. People with aphasia, including people with moderate-severe comprehension impairments, are able to engage with teleassessment. Successful teleassessment can be supported by retaining clinical flexibility and maintaining consistent task demands. What is already known on the subject Teleassessment for aphasia is reliable but assessment of auditory comprehension is difficult to adapt to the online environment. There has been limited evaluation of the ability of people with severe aphasia to engage in auditory comprehension teleassessment. What this paper adds to existing knowledge Auditory comprehension assessment can be adapted for videoconferencing administration while maintaining clinical flexibility to support people with severe aphasia. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Teleassessment is time and cost effective and can be designed to support inclusion of severely impaired individuals.

Emotional Storyteller for Vision Impaired and Hearing-Impaired Children

Tellie is an innovative mobile app designed to offer an immersive and emotionally enriched storytelling experience for children who are visually and hearing impaired. It achieves this through four main objectives: Text extraction utilizes the CRAFT model and a combination of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Connectionist Temporal Classification (CTC), and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks to accurately extract and recognize text from images in storybooks. Recognition of Emotions in Sentences employs BERT to detect and distinguish emotions at the sentence level including happiness, anger, sadness, and surprise. Conversion of Text to Human Natural Audio with Emotion transforms text into emotionally expressive audio using Tacotron2 and Wave Glow, enhancing the synthesized speech with emotional styles to create engaging audio narratives. Conversion of Text to Sign Language: To cater to the Deaf and hard-of-hearing community, Tellie translates text into sign language using CNNs, ensuring alignment with real sign language expressions. These objectives combine to create Tellie, a groundbreaking app that empowers visually and hearing-impaired children with access to captivating storytelling experiences, promoting accessibility and inclusivity through the harmonious integration of language, creativity, and technology. This research demonstrates the potential of advanced technologies in fostering inclusive and emotionally engaging storytelling for all children.

The effect of inhibitory control and language proficiency on intra-sentential switching costs in reading comprehension

Based on the inhibition account and activation account, inhibitory control and language proficiency play big roles on language control mechanisms underlying language switching respectively. But it is still debatable whether inhibitory control and language proficiency play roles in sentential context during bilingual language comprehension, and how and when they work if they both do. The present study examined the specific roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on modulating intra-sentential switching costs in Chinese-English bilinguals using self-paced reading task. Results indicated that language proficiency and switching direction modulated intra-sentential switching costs significantly. Switching costs were larger when switching into L1 than into L2 for the first two code-switched words due to inhibitory effect, but more costly switching into L2 than into L1 since the third code-switched words owing to the effect of relative language proficiency. During bilingual language processing, inhibition and activation of languages shaped a dynamic interplay of complementary language control processes. Specifically, inhibitory control and language proficiency work as a dynamic continuum in language switching at sentence level. Switching into L1 requires the release of inhibition to L1, but switching into L2 asks the activation and access of L2. The interaction effects of language proficiency and inhibitory control influenced the exertion and components of inhibition. This study reconciled the independent roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on language switching and constructed a new continuum based on language proficiency.