Sensorimotor Rhythm Research Articles

A transfer learning-based feedback training motivates the performance of SMR-BCI

Objective. Feedback training is a practical approach to brain–computer interface (BCI) end-users learning to modulate their sensorimotor rhythms (SMRs). BCI self-regulation learning has been shown to be influenced by subjective psychological factors, such as motivation. However, few studies have taken into account the users’ self-motivation as additional guidance for the cognitive process involved in BCI learning. In this study we tested a transfer learning (TL) feedback method designed to increase self-motivation by providing information about past performance. Approach. Electroencephalography (EEG) signals from the previous runs were affine transformed and displayed as points on the screen, along with the newly recorded EEG signals in the current run, giving the subjects a context for self-motivation. Subjects were asked to separate the feedback points for the current run under the display of the separability of prior training. We conducted a between-subject feedback training experiment, in which 24 healthy SMR-BCI naive subjects were trained to imagine left- and right-hand movements. The participants were provided with either TL feedback or typical cursor-bar (CB) feedback (control condition), for three sessions on separate days. Main results. The behavioral results showed an increased challenge and stable mastery confidence, suggesting that subjects’ motivation grew as the feedback training went on. The EEG results showed favorable overall training effects with TL feedback in terms of the class distinctiveness and EEG discriminancy. Performance was 28.5% higher in the third session than in the first. About 41.7% of the subjects were ‘learners’ including not only low-performance subjects, but also good-performance subjects who might be affected by the ceiling effect. Subjects were able to control BCI with TL feedback with a higher performance of 60.5% during the last session compared to CB feedback. Significance. The present study demonstrated that the proposed TL feedback method boosted psychological engagement through the self-motivated context, and further allowed subjects to modulate SMR effectively. The proposed TL feedback method also provided an alternative to typical CB feedback.

Quasi-Movements and “Quasi-Quasi-Movements”: Does Residual Muscle Activation Matter?

Quasi-movements (QM) are observed when an individual minimizes a movement to an extent that no related muscle activation is detected. Likewise to imaginary movements (IM) and overt movements, QMs are accompanied by the event-related desynchronization (ERD) of EEG sensorimotor rhythms. Stronger ERD was observed under QMs compared to IMs in some studies. However, the difference could be caused by the remaining muscle activation in QMs that could escape detection. Here, we re-examined the relation between the electromyography (EMG) signal and ERD in QM using sensitive data analysis procedures. More trials with signs of muscle activation were observed in QMs compared with a visual task and IMs. However, the rate of such trials was not correlated with subjective estimates of actual movement. Contralateral ERD did not depend on the EMG but still was stronger in QMs compared with IMs. These results suggest that brain mechanisms are common for QMs in the strict sense and "quasi-quasi-movements" (attempts to perform the same task accompanied by detectable EMG elevation) but differ between them and IMs. QMs could be helpful in research aimed at better understanding motor action and at modeling the use of attempted movements in the brain-computer interfaces with healthy participants.

Both Sensorimotor Rhythm Neurofeedback and Self-Controlled Practice Enhance Motor Learning and Performance in Novice Golfers.

A major concern voiced by motor behavior scientists is to find useful practice techniques that can be effective in improving motor learning and performance. Neurofeedback and self-controlled practice are among the techniques that have recently drawn attention from specialists in this area. The present study examined the additive and individual effects of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) neurofeedback as well as self-controlled practice on motor learning and performance in novice golfers. In this semi-empirical study, forty adults (20 females, Meanage = 26.10, SD = 5.56 years) were conveniently selected and randomly assigned to four groups: (1) neurofeedback/self-controlled practice, (2) neurofeedback/yoked practice, (3) sham/self-controlled practice, and (4) sham/yoked practice. The participants performed golf putting task in four stages, namely pretest (12 trials), intervention (one day after pretest; 6 sessions, 36 trails each), post-test (one day after intervention; 12 trials), and follow-up (two weeks after interventions; 12 trials). In addition, the participants had their EEG (SMR wave in Cz point) recorded during pretest, post-test, and follow-up. The results indicated that, although no additive effect was observed for the two practices during different stages of the experiment (p > 0.05), in acquisition and post-test stages, SMR neurofeedback and self-controlled practice independently facilitated golf putting (p ≤ 0.05). However, in the follow-up test, only the neurofeedback practice maintained its positive effects (p ≤ 0.05). The results also showed that participation in SMR neurofeedback practice can enhance the power of the SMR wave (p ≤ 0.05), regardless of the type of the self-controlled practice used. In sum, the two practice techniques seem to be independently effective in facilitating motor learning in instructional settings, particularly for golfers.

Brain-Computer interface control of stepping from invasive electrocorticography upper-limb motor imagery in a patient with quadriplegia.

Introduction: Most spinal cord injuries (SCI) result in lower extremities paralysis, thus diminishing ambulation. Using brain-computer interfaces (BCI), patients may regain leg control using neural signals that actuate assistive devices. Here, we present a case of a subject with cervical SCI with an implanted electrocorticography (ECoG) device and determined whether the system is capable of motor-imagery-initiated walking in an assistive ambulator. Methods: A 24-year-old male subject with cervical SCI (C5 ASIA A) was implanted before the study with an ECoG sensing device over the sensorimotor hand region of the brain. The subject used motor-imagery (MI) to train decoders to classify sensorimotor rhythms. Fifteen sessions of closed-loop trials followed in which the subject ambulated for one hour on a robotic-assisted weight-supported treadmill one to three times per week. We evaluated the stability of the best-performing decoder over time to initiate walking on the treadmill by decoding upper-limb (UL) MI. Results: An online bagged trees classifier performed best with an accuracy of 84.15% averaged across 9 weeks. Decoder accuracy remained stable following throughout closed-loop data collection. Discussion: These results demonstrate that decoding UL MI is a feasible control signal for use in lower-limb motor control. Invasive BCI systems designed for upper-extremity motor control can be extended for controlling systems beyond upper extremity control alone. Importantly, the decoders used were able to use the invasive signal over several weeks to accurately classify MI from the invasive signal. More work is needed to determine the long-term consequence between UL MI and the resulting lower-limb control.

Assessment of the capacity to modulate brain signals in a home-based SMR neurofeedback training setting.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)-based neurofeedback (NF) is mainly used in clinical settings as a therapeutic intervention or to optimize performance in healthy individuals. Home-based NF systems are available and might facilitate general access to NF training, especially when repeated training sessions are necessary. However, it remains an open question whether NF training at home is possible without remote monitoring. In the present study, we assessed the capacity of healthy individuals to modulate their own EEG activity when using a home-based NF training system in a comparable manner as if participants had purchased a commercially available NF system. Participants' face-to-face contact with experimenters was reduced to a minimum, and instructions were provided only in the form of written information or videos. Initially, 38 participants performed 9 sessions of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) (12-15 Hz) based NF training (three generalization sessions, six training sessions). An active control group (n = 19) received feedback on random EEG frequencies. Because of technical problems, bad EEG data quality, or non-compliance, 21 participants had to be excluded from the final data analysis, providing first evidence for the difficulties of non-supervised home-based NF training. In this study, participants were not able to modulate their own brain activity in a desired direction during NF training. Our results indicate that personal interaction with a NF expert might be of relevance and that remote supervision of the training data and more direct communication with the NF users are necessary to enable successful NF training performance. We provide suggestions for the development and implementation of home-based NF systems.

Sensorimotor rhythm neurofeedback training and auditory perception

Background/Aim. In everyday communication, people are exposed to a myriad of sounds that need to be sorted and relevant information extracted. The ability of a person to concentrate on certain sounds in a noisy background environment, perform selective attention, and focus their auditory attention is crucial for everyday functioning and communication. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) (12?15 Hz) neurofeedback (NFB) training to improve auditory cognition measured by the achievements in the Quick speech-in-noise (QuickSIN) test, changes in the amplitudes and latencies of components of auditory evoked potentials (AEP) N100, N200, and P300 in the auditory oddball discrimination task, and changes in the spectral power of the SMR. Methods. The study included 16 healthy participants aged 25?40 years (8 males and 8 females). Each participant had 20 daily sessions of SMR NFB training. Auditory cognitive functions and electrophysiological correlates of cognitive processing were recorded 5 times ? before NFB, after 5, 10, and 20 sessions, and one month after the last session of NFB. Re-sults. The results showed a statistically significant decrease in N200 and P300 latencies at frontal midline (Fz), central midline (Cz), and parietal midline (Pz) regions, an improvement on the QuickSIN test, and an increase in electroencephalogram SMR rhythm spectral power in the Cz region as a result of the NFB SMR training. No significant effect of the NFB training on the N100, N200, and P300 amplitudes on Fz, Cz, and Pz was found. Conclusion. The obtained results suggest that SMR NFB affects auditory perception in terms of shorter latencies of AEP and better performance on the QuickSIN test.

СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ НЕЙРОФИЗИОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ И НЕЙРОВИЗУАЛИЗАЦИОННЫХ ПОКАЗАТЕЛЕЙ У ДЕТЕЙ С ГЕМИПЛЕГИЧЕСКОЙ ФОРМОЙ ДЕТСКОГО ЦЕРЕБРАЛЬНОГО ПАРАЛИЧА В ЗАВИСИМОСТИ ОТ ЛАТЕРАЛИЗАЦИИ ОЧАГА И ПОЛА

Objective: This study aims to analyze the neurophysiological and neuroimaging characteristics of children diagnosed with hemiplegic cerebral palsy (HCP) while considering the impact of gender and laterality of hemiparesis. Methods: We analyzed 125 children between the ages of 7-9 (with a mean age of 8.2±0.9 years) diagnosed with HCP (ICD-10 Code: G80.2). Our analysis focused on the lateralization of cerebral injury. The patients were divided into 2 groups based on the hemispheric focus lateralization. In each group, subgroups were distinguished by gender. After examining the patients, it was found that the most prevalent were male children, children aged eight years, and those with left-sided hemiparesis. Results: The EEG of patients with HCP showed diffuse changes and signs of brainstem dysfunction (disorganization of the α-rhythm at a reduced amplitude level). Furthermore, there were fluctuations in the brain's bioelectrical activity (BEA) of varying degrees of intensity. Residual organic disorders (slowing down of the cortical rhythm) were found in 64 (88.9%) children of group I and in 42 (79.2%) children of group II (p>0.05; χ2 =1.52). MRI data analysis revealed brain pathological changes in all examined patients. In group I, periventricular lesions of the white matter were present in 36.4% (12) and 38.5% (15) of female and male pediatric patients, respectively. In both female and male pediatric patients, atrophic and subatrophic changes were detected in the cerebral cortex with a prevalence of 51.5% (17) and 53.8% (21), respectively. Brain scans revealed that 84.8% (28) of female and 89.7% (35) of male pediatric patients had focal brain lesions. In group II, periventricular lesions of the white matter occurred in 34.8% (8) and 36.7% (11) of female and male pediatric patients, respectively. Gray matter atrophy in both female and male pediatric patients was detected in 47.8% (11) and 53.3% (16) cases, respectively. Focal brain lesions were in 65.2% (1 5) and 76.7% (23) of female and male pediatric patients, respectively. Conclusion: There is no correlation between the neurophysiological and neuroimaging characteristics of children with HCP and their hemiparesis laterality or gender. From the available data, it can be inferred that HCP is likely caused by focal cerebral damage and brain malformations.Keywords: Cerebral palsy, electroencephalogram, brain bioelectrical activity, magnetic resonance imaging, slow sensorimotor rhythm.

MEANSP: How Many Channels are Needed to Predict the Performance of a SMR-Based BCI?

Predicting whether a particular individual would reach an adequate control of a Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) has many practical advantages. On the one hand, participants with low predicted performance could be trained with specifically designed sessions and avoid frustrating experiments; on the other hand, planning time and resources would be more efficient; and finally, the variables related to an accurate prediction could be manipulated to improve the prospective BCI performance. To this end, several predictors have been proposed in the literature, most of them based on the power estimation of EEG signals at the specific frequency bands. Many of these studies evaluate their predictors in relatively small datasets and/or using a relatively high number of channels. In this manuscript, we propose a novel predictor called [Formula: see text] to predict the performance of participants using BCIs that are based on the modulation of sensorimotor rhythms. This novel predictor has been positively evaluated using only 2, 3, 4 or 5 channels. [Formula: see text] has shown to perform as well as or better than other state-of-the-art predictors. The best sets of different number of channels are also provided, which have been tested in two different settings to prove their robustness. The proposed predictor has been successfully evaluated using two large-scale datasets containing 150 and 80 participants, respectively. We also discuss predictor thresholds for users to expect good performance in feedback experiments and show the advantages in comparison to a competing algorithm.

Sensorimotor Rhythm-Based Brain-Computer Interfaces for Motor Tasks Used in Hand Upper Extremity Rehabilitation after Stroke: A Systematic Review.

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are becoming more popular in the neurological rehabilitation field, and sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) is a type of brain oscillation rhythm that can be captured and analyzed in BCIs. Previous reviews have testified to the efficacy of the BCIs, but seldom have they discussed the motor task adopted in BCIs experiments in detail, as well as whether the feedback is suitable for them. We focused on the motor tasks adopted in SMR-based BCIs, as well as the corresponding feedback, and searched articles in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, Web of Science, and Scopus and found 442 articles. After a series of screenings, 15 randomized controlled studies were eligible for analysis. We found motor imagery (MI) or motor attempt (MA) are common experimental paradigms in EEG-based BCIs trials. Imagining/attempting to grasp and extend the fingers is the most common, and there were multi-joint movements, including wrist, elbow, and shoulder. There were various types of feedback in MI or MA tasks for hand grasping and extension. Proprioception was used more frequently in a variety of forms. Orthosis, robot, exoskeleton, and functional electrical stimulation can assist the paretic limb movement, and visual feedback can be used as primary feedback or combined forms. However, during the recovery process, there are many bottleneck problems for hand recovery, such as flaccid paralysis or opening the fingers. In practice, we should mainly focus on patients' difficulties, and design one or more motor tasks for patients, with the assistance of the robot, FES, or other combined feedback, to help them to complete a grasp, finger extension, thumb opposition, or other motion. Future research should focus on neurophysiological changes and functional improvements and further elaboration on the changes in neurophysiology during the recovery of motor function.

Immediate effects of short-term meditation on sensorimotor rhythm-based brain-computer interface performance.

Meditation has been shown to enhance a user's ability to control a sensorimotor rhythm (SMR)-based brain-computer interface (BCI). For example, prior work have demonstrated that long-term meditation practices and an 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) training have positive behavioral and neurophysiological effects on SMR-based BCI. However, the effects of short-term meditation practice on SMR-based BCI control are still unknown. In this study, we investigated the immediate effects of a short, 20-minute meditation on SMR-based BCI control. Thirty-seven subjects performed several runs of one-dimensional cursor control tasks before and after two types of 20-minute interventions: a guided mindfulness meditation exercise and a recording of a narrator reading a journal article. We found that there is no significant change in BCI performance and Electroencephalography (EEG) BCI control signal following either 20-minute intervention. Moreover, the change in BCI performance between the meditation group and the control group was found to be not significant. The present results suggest that a longer period of meditation is needed to improve SMR-based BCI control.

Noninvasive neuroimaging and spatial filter transform enable ultra low delay motor imagery EEG decoding

Objective. The brain-computer interface (BCI) system based on sensorimotor rhythm can convert the human spirit into instructions for machine control, and it is a new human-computer interaction system with broad applications. However, the spatial resolution of scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) is limited due to the presence of volume conduction effects. Therefore, it is very meaningful to explore intracranial activities in a noninvasive way and improve the spatial resolution of EEG. Meanwhile, low-delay decoding is an essential factor for the development of a real-time BCI system. Approach. In this paper, EEG conduction is modeled by using public head anatomical templates, and cortical EEG is obtained using dynamic parameter statistical mapping. To solve the problem of a large amount of computation caused by the increase in the number of channels, the filter bank common spatial pattern method is used to obtain a spatial filter kernel, which reduces the computational cost of feature extraction to a linear level. And the feature classification and selection of important features are completed using a neural network containing band-spatial-time domain self-attention mechanisms. Main results. The results show that the method proposed in this paper achieves high accuracy for the four types of motor imagery EEG classification tasks, with fairly low latency and high physiological interpretability. Significance. The proposed decoding framework facilitates the realization of low-latency human-computer interaction systems.

SPECIAL ISSUE: In Honor of Maurice Barry Sterman

This paper reviews and highlights the numerous contributions over more than 50 years of Dr. Maurice Barry Sterman. Sterman was one of the founders of our field of neurofeedback (neuroregulation). He was responsible for the development of the use of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) training for the treatment of epileptic seizures. He has published widely and presented his findings worldwide. It has been a privilege to know him as a colleague and a friend for more than five decades.

Clinical EEG of Rett Syndrome: Group Analysis Supplemented with Longitudinal Case Report.

Rett syndrome (RTT), a severe neurodevelopmental disorder caused by MECP2 gene abnormalities, is characterized by atypical EEG activity, and its detailed examination is lacking. We combined the comparison of one-time eyes open EEG resting state activity from 32 girls with RTT and their 41 typically developing peers (age 2-16 years old) with longitudinal following of one girl with RTT to reveal EEG parameters which correspond to the RTT progression. Traditional measures, such as epileptiform abnormalities, generalized background activity, beta activity and the sensorimotor rhythm, were supplemented by a new frequency rate index measured as the ratio between high- and low-frequency power of sensorimotor rhythm. Almost all studied EEG parameters differentiated the groups; however, only the elevated generalized background slowing and decrease in our newly introduced frequency rate index which reflects attenuation in the proportion of the upper band of sensorimotor rhythm in RTT showed significant relation with RTT progression both in longitudinal case and group analysis. Moreover, only this novel index was linked to the breathing irregularities RTT symptom. The percentage of epileptiform activity was unrelated to RTT severity, confirming previous studies. Thus, resting EEG can provide information about the pathophysiological changes caused by MECP2 abnormalities and disease progression.

Effects of brain network segregation and integration on motor imagery sensorimotor rhythm

Effects of brain network segregation and integration on motor imagery sensorimotor rhythm

Collaborative neural processes predict successful cognitive-motor performance.

Psychomotor efficiency is achieved by expert performers who exhibit refined attentional strategies and efficient motor program execution. Further understanding of the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis requires examination of the co-activation of key electroencephalographic (EEG) indices, including frontal theta (Fθ) power, left temporal alpha (T3α) power, the sensory-motor rhythm (SMR), and frontocentral alpha power (FCα). This study examined the relationship between these selected neural processes and the odds of successful cognitive-motor performance. EEG indices of successful and failed putts observed in twenty-seven skilled golfers were subjected to mixed-effects logistic regression analysis. The results revealed that concurrent elevations of Fθ and T3α were associated with increased odds of successful performance. The co-activation from motoric processes indicated by SMR and FCα also elevated the odds. Overall, the findings emphasize that refined attention allocation and effective motor program processing are essential cognitive features of superior cognitive-motor performance for skilled golfers.

New approaches to clinical electroencephalography analysis in typically developing children and children with autism

Clinical analysis of EEG is time-consuming and requires a high level of expertise. In this study, we developed a new approach for EEG analysis applying quantitative methods for assessing clinical indices of EEG for four age groups of children with severe autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and four age- and non-verbal IQ-matched groups of typically developing (TD) children. The new approach showed higher sensitivity and ASD-TD differences than conventional quantitative EEG analysis. TD and ASD groups had similar dispersions of EEG power spectral density, coherence, and peak alpha frequency, but the groups differed in the index, frequency variability, and instantaneous prevailing frequency of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR). The ASD-TD difference in SMR index and instantaneous prevailing frequency disappeared by the age of ten years. The ASD-TD differences in SMR frequency variability were most prominent in children younger than 4 and older than 10 years.

Subjective Improvement of Sleep in Insomnia Patients Treated at a Day Rehabilitation Centre After the Use of EEG Neurofeedback Therapy – a Pilot Study

Introduction: Insomnia affects nearly 1/3 of the worldwide population. Electroencephalography neurofeedback (EEG-NFB) is one of the methods used in applied psychophysiology, which can improve nightly sleep scheme. Research objective: The aim of this pilot study was to assess the relative effect of a 20-day neurorehabilitation intervention based on EEG-NFB therapy in insomnia patients treated at a day rehabilitation centre. Materials and methods: Seventy-four patients with insomnia: 28 women (mean age ± SD: 67.9 ± 8.84 years, range: 42–83 years) and 46 men (mean age ± SD: 63.0 ± 9.24 years, range: 42-80 years) were subjected to the EEG-NFB training-neurorehabilitation using the C4 protocol: sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) (12-15 Hz)/theta (4-7 Hz). The individual everyday EEG-NFB training consisted of 20, 30-minute sessions. Before and after the training, the data was collected from 12-electrode quantitative EEG (QEEG) tests. In addition, several standardised psychological questionnaires were performed: Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Results: The EEG-NFB therapy reduced anxiety (7.39 ± 1.0 vs. 6.12 ± 0.88 in STAI, p< 0.001) and improved patients' mood (17.6 ± 3.9 vs. 14.65 ± 3.39 in BDI, p< 0.001). During the PSQI test, the time of falling asleep and number of night awakenings were statistically reduced (both p<0.001). However, there was no significant difference in the -SMR amplitude between pre- to post-treatment (9.15 ± 3.11 and 8.62 ± 2.82, respectively, p=0.095). Conclusions: Due to the subjective improvement of sleep quality, without statistically significant changes in the electrophysiological record (expressed by SMR amplitude), it is advisable to continue research with the use of EEG-NFB therapy.

Attention neuroenhancement through tDCS or neurofeedback: a randomized, single-blind, controlled trial

Neurofeedback and transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) are promising techniques for neuroenhancement of attentional performance. As far as we know no study compared both techniques on attentional performance in healthy participants. We compared tDCS and neurofeedback in a randomized, single-blind, controlled experiment assessing both behavioral (accuracy and time reaction) and electrophysiological (N1, P1, and P3 components) data of participants responding to the Attention Network Task (ANT). Eighty volunteers volunteered for this study. We adopted standard protocols for both techniques, i.e., a Sensorimotor Rhythm (SMR) protocol for neurofeedback and the right DLPFC anodal stimulation for tDCS, applied over nine sessions (two weeks). We did not find significant differences between treatment groups on ANT, neither at the behavioral nor at the electrophysiological levels. However, we found that participants from both neuromodulation groups, irrespective of if active or sham, reported attentional improvements in response to the treatment on a subjective scale. Our study adds another null result to the neuromodulation literature, showing that neurofeedback and tDCS effects are more complex than previously suggested and associated with placebo effect. More studies in neuroenhancement literature are necessary to fully comprehend neuromodulation mechanisms.

QEEG markers of superior shooting performance in skilled marksmen: An investigation of cortical activity on psychomotor efficiency hypothesis

For elite performers, psychomotor behavior's success or failure can be traced to differences in brain dynamics. The psychomotor efficiency hypothesis suggests refined cortical activity through 1) selective activation of task-relevant processes and 2) inhibition of non-essential processes. The use of electroencephalography (EEG) has been applied to investigate psychomotor performance's neural processes. The EEG markers that reflect an elevation of psychomotor efficiency include left temporal alpha (T3 alpha), frontal midline theta (Fm theta), sensorimotor rhythm (SMR), and the coherence between frontal and left temporal regions. However, the relationship between elite performers' task-relevant and non-essential neural processes is still not well understood. Therefore, this study aimed to explore how each task-relevant and inhibition of non-essential processes contribute to superior psychomotor behavior. Thirty-five highly skilled marksmen were recruited to perform 30 shots in the shooting task while the EEG was recorded. The marksmen were divided into two groups (superior & inferior) based on a median split of shooting performance. The superior group exhibited higher accuracy and precision, with a reduction in movement jerk. EEG measures revealed that the superior group exhibited higher SMR before the trigger pull than the inferior group. In addition, the superior group demonstrated reduced Fz-T3 coherence in their bull's eye shots than the missed shots. These results suggest that the superior group exhibited less effortful engagement of task-relevant processes and lower interference from non-essential cortical regions than the inferior group. The study's overall findings support the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis. When comparing highly skilled performers, the slight differences in brain dynamics ultimately contribute to the success or failure of psychomotor performance.

Reactivity of EEG Sensorimotor Rhythms on Observation of Pro- and Antisocial Actions in Young Children

Reactivity of EEG Sensorimotor Rhythms on Observation of Pro- and Antisocial Actions in Young Children