Sensory Drivers Research Articles

A review of the cognitive and sensory cues impacting taste perceptions and consumption

AbstractFood has a daily impact on all consumers, requiring frequent evaluations and decisions pre‐consumption, during, and post‐consumption. Given the number of consumer interactions and the complexity of the food consumption process, researchers have increasingly studied food from both a sensory standpoint and cognitive standpoint. In this review, we create a framework for this existing research. Specifically, we discuss research addressing the key sensory drivers of taste perceptions and consumption, including all five senses: vision, olfaction, audition, haptic, and/or taste. We also identify key cognitive contextual drivers of taste perception and consumption within a marketing context, including social cues, atmospherics, branding, and advertising. Building from the extant literature, we generate and propose areas for future food‐related research.

Identifying temporal drivers of liking and satiation based on temporal sensory descriptions and consumer ratings

Capturing temporal sensory changes has been the focus in recent research to better understand how consumers perceive food products. This information can be linked to consumer expectations (e.g., liking, satiety) to study the sensory drivers throughout the eating experience, namely temporal drivers. This study explores the use of penalty-lift analyses for each time point in the temporal sensory description to identify the temporal drivers of liking/satiety for different groups of consumers with different patterns in their expectations of satiety.Eight yoghurt samples formulated based on an experimental design, with identical composition, varying in textural properties, were used in the study. Temporal Check-All-That-Apply (TCATA) was used to describe dynamic sensory profiles. Consumers (n = 101) tasted each yoghurt and rated their liking and expected satiety.Cluster analysis of variables around latent variables (CLV) method was applied to cluster consumers based on their expectations of satiety, detecting two relevant clusters.Penalty-lift analysis was used for each time point. Also, the false discovery rate (FDR) was applied to correct p-values for multiple tests responding to sequential time points. Differences were found related to how particle size attributes and flavour intensities drove liking for each cluster at different time points. For cluster 1, while Gritty was positive driver from the middle to the end, Sandy was negative driver in the middle; and Vanilla was positive driver of liking throughout the mastication. For cluster 2, only Sweet was pointed as positive driver at the beginning, and Dry as negative driver in some time points at the middle of the mastication.With regards to expected satiety, main difference was that Gritty (or Sandy) was considered as positive (or negative) driver for cluster 1, but not for cluster 2; significant over the entire time period.These findings demonstrate that the temporal driver approach appears as a suitable method to unveil the drivers of liking/satiety during the eating process in groups of consumers with different eating behaviours and preferences.

Sensory typicity of regional Australian Cabernet Sauvignon wines according to expert evaluations and descriptive analysis

The concept of wine typicity has been an important tool for the international wine trade, and especially for Old World wine producing countries, where provenance criteria are regulated and act as a quality indicator. Provenance in Australia is governed by Geographical Indications, for which typicity should also be evident in terms of regional sensory profiles of wine from a given grape cultivar. Two approaches were used to identify sensory drivers for regional typicity of commercial Cabernet Sauvignon wines from three Australian regions, namely Coonawarra, Margaret River, and Yarra Valley. Cabernet Sauvignon-dominant wines from Bordeaux were also assessed for benchmarking purposes. A set of 84 wines underwent a sorting task and rate-all-that-apply (RATA) analysis of the sorted groups with an expert panel. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering of the sorting task data did not show a clear regional driver upon separating the samples into four main clusters, although certain sensory traits could be associated with the different clusters. On the other hand, canonical variate analysis (CVA) of the group-RATA results indicated several sensory drivers for the separation between the regions, such as ‘mint’ and ‘dark fruits’ being important for Coonawarra wine profiles, ‘floral’ and ‘green pepper’ for Margaret River, ‘stemmy’ for Yarra Valley, and ‘barnyard’ and ‘savoury’ differentiating Bordeaux wines from the other regions.A subset (n = 52) of wines was selected for further evaluation by descriptive analysis with a trained panel. Statistical evaluation with CVA revealed similar results to the expert evaluation, with Bordeaux wines showing more dissimilarity when compared to Australian regions, and having ‘savoury’ and ‘earthy’ as significant characters. The results also demonstrated that ‘mint’ and ‘Mallee leaf’ were relevant characters for Coonawarra regional sensory profile, ‘violets’ and ‘red fruits’ for Margaret River, and ‘cooked vegetables’ for Yarra Valley. Analysing both data sets (expert RATA and DA) revealed some agreement between the sets of results for attributes such as ‘mint’, ‘cooked vegetables’, ‘floral’, green-related characters, and oak characters like ‘vanilla’ and ‘chocolate’. Overall, experts and trained panellists were able to distinguish regions based on a few characteristic sensory traits.

Effect of consumers’ origin on perceived sensory quality, liking and liking drivers: A cross-cultural study on European cheeses

We aim at studying consumers’ Perceived Sensory Quality (PSQ) concept. We manipulated a priori both familiarity (contrast local vs. foreign cheeses) and quality level (contrast PDO or traditional cheeses vs. their non-PDO and/or industrial counterpart). The study was run in four European countries. Thus, eight cheeses (one PDO or traditional cheese and one non-PDO cheese from each of the four European countries) were assessed by a total of 438 consumers (from 100 to 120 consumers from each region) in terms of PSQ and liking. The cheeses were also described by a trained panel.PSQ depended on both consumers’ and cheeses’ origin. The main finding is that in the three countries with PDO culture, consumers identified domestic PDO cheese as having a significantly higher PSQ than its non-PDO counterpart, whereas they were not able to differentiate PDO and non-PDO cheeses from other countries. Overall, sensory drivers of PSQ were similar across consumers of different origin but, the relationship between PSQ and liking is higher for non-local cheeses than for local cheeses. Overall, the results support the idea that PSQ is related to liking but is also modulated by product familiarity.

Individual differences underlying food intake and liking in semisolid foods

Many sensory, cognitive, and physiological factors contribute to satiation and satiety responses; sensory and cognitive factors lead to feelings of satiation and short-term satiety. This research aims at understanding how sensory perception and consumer preferences are related to food intake of semisolid foods, using a case study on yogurt with controlled texture variations. Individual differences in food intake and liking were analyzed together with eating rate, to get a holistic picture of the sensory drivers of liking and intake in different groups of consumers. Six yogurts were formulated based on a design of experiment to obtain isocaloric products varying in consistency and particle size. Samples were evaluated by a trained panel via Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) and Temporal Check-all-that-apply (TCATA). Additionally, 103 consumers ate ad libitum the yogurt samples and rated their liking. Amount eaten was measured by weight and eating rate via video recording. The effect of particle size on intake depended on the thickness of the matrix. Based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA), three groups of consumers were identified that reacted differently to the changes in yogurt texture in terms of amount eaten and liking responses. While for some consumers liking and intake were correlated, others ate more of what they liked less, driven by textural changes in the matrix. Results suggested that different patterns in intake and liking may be related to different eating styles, thus, manipulations on textural properties may reduce the intake for some consumers, but not for all. This work unveils the importance of studying individual differences when measuring food intake, together with static and dynamic sensory drivers for different segments of consumers. In a time where food personalization increases in focus, it seems possible to reformulate food texture to influence consumers expectations and intake, aiming at targeting overeating; however, individual differences need to be better understood to know the implications for different groups of consumers.

Temporal Dominance of Sensations paired with dynamic wanting in an ad libitum setting: A new method of sensory evaluation with consumers for a better understanding of beer drinkability

While drinkability is of paramount importance when discussing beer, there is no established methodology to assess it. The main objective of the present study was to develop a new method of sensory evaluation with consumers to obtain a better understanding of beer drinkability. With the aim of being practically and effectively used in a wide range of consumer tests in an ad libitum consumption setting, a new method called the “Multiple-sip Drinkability Test” was developed to evaluate beer drinkability defined as “the will of drinking”. The method is based on Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) paired with dynamic wanting.This paper presents the test designs and the results from two studies of four commercial Japanese beers, one conducted with an expert sensory panel and the other with a naïve panel of consumers. The results revealed the importance of monitoring dynamic wanting over sips. In both studies, product differences in wanting, almost nonexistent at the beginning, gradually became larger.These studies also elicited the characteristics of beer with high drinkability. The product that attained the highest wanting scores in both studies was perceived as having less of a standout flavor, thereby producing fewer build-up effects on sensory perceptions, which suggests that the greater the sensory load produced by a beer, the less one wants to drink it continuously. This methodology should be used with different types of beers and consumers to obtain a broader understanding of the sensory drivers of beer drinkability and consumer satisfaction.

Consumer acceptance and sensory drivers of liking of Minas Frescal Minas cheese manufactured using milk subjected to ohmic heating: Performance of machine learning methods

The consumer acceptance (n = 100) and the sensory drivers of liking of Minas frescal cheese manufactured with milk subjected to ohmic heating (0, 4, 8, and 12 V/cm−1, CONV, OH4, OH8, and OH12, 72–75 °C/15 s) were investigated. Machine learning techniques (random forest, gradient boosted trees, and extreme learning machine; RF, GBT, and ELM) were used to determine the sensory drivers of liking. No significant differences were observed among the cheeses for most of the sensory attributes, for all treatments, suggesting that ohmic heating may be an adequate technology for Minas Frescal cheese processing with the advantage of improving its overall liking. Machine learning methods presented a good agreement with the experimental data, allowing the identification of the attribute's juiciness, white color, homogenous mass, Minas Frescal cheese flavor as the sensory drivers of liking, while the attribute bitter taste was identified as a driver of disliking. These results should be taken into consideration when adopting emerging technologies, such as ohmic heating for the manufacture of Minas frescal cheese.

Savoury and kokumi enhancement increases perceived calories and expectations of fullness in equicaloric beef broths

A food’s sensory appeal can be affected when reformulation is focused on reducing calorie content. Savoury taste enhancers and kokumi compounds have been used to improve the sensory qualities of reduced-calorie foods, but less is known about how such enhancement influences foods’ expected calories and satiating properties. This study examined whether savoury enhancement in a beef broth has an impact on its perceived calories, expected fullness and prospective portion selection. A sensory panel (n = 40, 20F) evaluated the sensory properties of broths that contained six different savoury and kokumi taste enhancers alone and in combination. Descriptive analysis and temporal-check-all-that-apply approach were used to profile the broths, and identified differences in savouriness intensity, mouthfeel and aftertaste across the different savoury- and kokumi-enhanced broths. Participants assessed each beef broth for its estimated calories and expected fullness, and self-selected prospective portion size. Total energy differences between broths were negligible, but participants’ perceptions of calorie content and expected fullness differed across the savoury- and kokumi-enhanced broths. Partial least squares regression was used to identify the sensory drivers of these differences and showed that broths with a higher intensity of ‘beef flavour’, ‘savouriness’, ‘body thickness’, ‘mouth-coating’ and ‘flavour aftertaste’ were positively related to higher calorie ratings, while ‘sourness’ intensity was negatively associated with calorie and fullness expectations. Savoury and kokumi enhancers can promote the flavour, mouthfeel and temporal sensory qualities of low-calorie foods, and could be used to increase their expected satiating properties by playing on learned associations between these sensory cues and fullness.

Effect of ageing time on consumer preference and sensory description of foal meat.

A consumer test (n = 120) was performed in Vitoria-Gasteiz (northern Spain) in order to study the effect of ageing time (0, 7, 14 and 21 days) on the sensory quality of Hispano-Bretón foal meat. Steaks (Longissimus thoracis et lumborum) were wet aged and evaluated in-mouth and visually. In both cases, acceptability was scored using a hedonic scale, and sensory drivers related to ageing were characterised by applying check-all-that-apply method in meat. For both, in-mouth and visual acceptability, meat aged for 7 days obtained higher scores than non-aged meat, whereas longer ageing periods did not improve consumer acceptability. Check-all-that-apply method showed to be able to discriminate among samples, both in-mouth and visually. Results revealed that texture related attributes were the most discriminant ones in the in-mouth evaluation, being non-aged meat related to 'dry', 'high residue', 'tough' and 'chewy' terms, whereas aged meat was associated to 'juicy', 'tender' and 'easily dissolving' terms. Visually, consumers perceived that, after 14 days of ageing, meat colour changed to 'brownish'. Under present study conditions, the establishment of a period of 7 days of ageing would be recommended.

Chemical and sensory analysis of commercial Navel oranges in California

Seven lots of commercially available Navel oranges grown in California were evaluated with flavoromic, metabolomic, sensory descriptive analysis, and consumer testing techniques to identify sensory and chemical drivers of liking. Eight identified chemical clusters related to numerous sensory attributes and consumer preferences. Differences in adult and child preferences led to the discovery of six consumer clusters (four adult and two child). Sweetness, overall flavor, sourness, fruity flavor, and juiciness were identified as the main sensory drivers of liking for the consumers. Fructose, glucose, and proline were among the compounds that best explained perceived sweetness while sourness was correlated with citrate and ascorbate. Perceived fruity flavor increased with higher concentrations of ethanol. We conclude that consumers differ in their preferences for Navel oranges and desire fruit that is higher in both sweetness and sourness.

Sensory drivers of product-elicited emotions are moderated by liking: Insights from consumer segmentation

The important role of emotions in consumers’ food-related decisions motivate ongoing research in this domain, and in the present research attention was directed to an area that remains under-investigated: identifying sensory drivers of product-elicited emotions. Assuming that product-elicited emotions depend on the value individuals attach to the sensory characteristics of products, liking was expected to moderate the sensory drivers of emotions. This motivated an exploration of differences in the emotional associations of consumer groups with different preference patterns, as well as the sensory drivers of product-elicited emotions. Across four studies (123–192 consumers per study), using different product categories, emotion questionnaire variants and consumer populations, support for three hypotheses was established: i) consumers with different preference patterns did not largely differ in how they described the sensory characteristics of products, but they differed in their emotional associations, and differences between segments with different liking patterns were larger for emotional product associations than for sensory product perceptions (H1), ii) differences in the emotional associations depended on the size of the difference in liking between the two groups, although some differences in the emotional associations of samples with similar liking scores were also established (H2), and iii) many of the sensory drivers of emotions differed between consumer segments with different preference patterns (H3). The latter has not previously been demonstrated in this level of detail and supports the growing recognition of segmentation analysis in product-focused consumer research.

What do we know about the sensory drivers of emotions in foods and beverages?

In the past decade, while interest in emotions has markedly grown, the relationships between sensory properties and emotions, and particularly the role played by product liking/disliking, remain underexplored. In this review we provide a concise summary of recent research on the emotions elicited by unbranded foods and beverages, as well as simpler taste and odour stimuli. Scientific advances and research limitations will be discussed, while taking account of heterogeneity in results due to the different methodologies used in the field and the role of individual differences. Food scientists will benefit from this state-of-affairs review to drive advances in applied research regarding the sensory drivers of emotions, much in the same way past research has contributed to an understanding of the sensory drivers of liking.

Using the emotion circumplex to uncover sensory drivers of emotional associations to products: six case studies

While emotional associations to products are increasingly used alongside sensory product characterisation in consumer research, studies that link these product responses remain less common. Six studies (104–270 people per study) were conducted using diverse products (salted snacks, potato chips, yoghurt, cheese, snack bars and fruit; 5–10 samples per study). To indicate their emotional response during product tasting, consumers used the emotion circumplex which is a single-response questionnaire that spans the dimensions of valence (pleasure to displeasure) and arousal (activation to deactivation). Sensory characterisation was obtained using check-all-that-apply (CATA) questions. Through regression analysis, sensory drivers of emotional associations were established, with different linkages to valence and arousal being identified. Many study-specific linkages were found, but the main result pertained to generalised patterns in some linkages including positive associations between ‘sweet’ and “pleasure”, often combined with “pleasant activation”. For ‘sour’, positive linkages were established to “activation”, typically with, or without, “negative pleasure”. Low flavour intensity was positively linked to the emotion circumplex quadrant that connected “deactivation” to “displeasure.” In general, linkages had straightforward and meaningful interpretations, confirming suitability of the emotion circumplex for use in product-focused emotion research.

Coffee Drinking and Emotions: Are There Key Sensory Drivers for Emotions?

In the past couple of decades the coffee market has exploded, and to remain competitive, it is important to identify the key drivers for consumer acceptance of coffee. This study expanded on the previous emotion study on a population of coffee drinkers in Manhattan, Kansas, USA and focused on identifying the sensory drivers of emotional responses elicited during the coffee drinking experience (CDE). A trained coffee panel performed a descriptive analysis of six coffee samples and identified the key sensory attributes that discriminated each coffee. Utilizing Partial Least Square Regression (PLSR), the descriptive data were then mapped with the emotion data to identify sensory drivers for eliciting the emotional responses. The sensory characteristics of dark roast coffee (roast–aroma and flavor, burnt–aroma and flavor, bitter, and body) might elicit positive-high energy feelings for this population of coffee users. Tobacco (flavor) and cocoa (aroma) may also be responsible for positive emotions (content, good, and pleasant). Citrus and acidity seemed to be negative sensory drivers as they induced the feeling of off-balance. Sensory descriptive data could be useful to describe emotion profiles elicited by coffee drinking, which could help the coffee industry create coffee products for different segments of coffee drinkers.

Consumer acceptance and sensory drivers of liking for high plant protein snacks.

Consumers are being encouraged to increase the proportion of plant protein in their diet to tend to a sustainable food system. Solutions could include developing a food rich in plant protein. However, these new products have an interest only if they are in accordance with expectation and the liking of consumers. In this context, extruded snack balls were developed to explore the sensory drivers of liking and barriers to consumption of formulated products with a high level of plant proteins. Eight different products varying in the type of cereal flour (rice or wheat) and pea flour content (from 60% to 90%) were developed following a factorial design. Eighty omnivore and 72 flexitarian consumers were recruited to evaluate the liking of these products. In addition, their sensory properties were described by a trained panel according to a profile method. The cereal type had globally more influence on liking than the percentage of pea. However, liking was inversely correlated with pea flour content, regardless of the cereal type. The main drivers of liking are texture criteria (in particular crispy and puffy), whereas flavor perception (pea, green) constitutes a barrier to acceptance. Interestingly, very few differences of liking were observed depending on the diet of consumers even though the attitudes of flexitarian'towards such type of products differed from those of omnivores. We identified three clusters of consumers based on their preferences. Pea flavor acceptance or rejection could explain these clusters. Although most consumers rejected pea flavor, approximately 40% of the participants preferred the products with highest pea content. The results of the present study will help provide guidance for innovative plant food design and formulation. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Does consumer liking fit the sensory quality assessed by trained panelists in traditional food products? A study on PDO Idiazabal cheese

The aim of this work was to study the degree of agreement between consumer liking and the sensory quality scored by the trained panel in charge of the quality control of a traditional product (PDO Idiazabal cheese). Nine cheeses of different qualities were evaluated by eight trained assessors and by 212 consumers from Vitoria‐Gasteiz (Basque Country). Cheese samples were clearly different regarding overall sensory quality (OSQ) assessed by the trained panel. Regarding consumers, five groups with different correlation levels with OSQ were identified: “sweet” and “toasty” were the main sensory drivers leading the liking of the consumers with a higher positive correlation, whereas some defective characteristics (“animal,” “rancid,” and “bitter”) were the main drivers for consumers with higher negative correlation. These results suggest that it would be interesting for the Regulatory Council to strength the communicational strategies among consumers to be able to identify the typical and nontypical (mainly defects) characteristics of this traditional product, especially among those liking defective cheeses.Practical applicationsThis study gives information about the degree of agreement concerning the sensory quality of a traditional product reached by a trained panel and by consumers' preferences. The research includes information regarding the sensory characteristics which drive liking among different groups of consumers. These results are of interest for the Regulatory Council of this product to define its marketing polices and consumer‐oriented education activities in order to provide information about the specific sensory characteristics of the product. Moreover, it may be interesting for PDO Regulatory Councils and other producers of traditional products in order to be more aware about the possible agreement and/or disagreement between the sensory quality of the product and consumer preferences.

Using a combined temporal approach to evaluate the influence of ethanol concentration on liking and sensory attributes of lager beer

A low alcohol beer evoking similar sensory enjoyment as its higher alcohol counterpart is potentially an attractive proposition to breweries for increased sales volumes, as well as consumers due to health and societal reasons. This study aimed to determine the influence of ethanol on the temporal sensory characteristics and liking of beer as perceived by beer consumers. A commercial 0% ethanol concentration lager was spiked with ethanol to different concentrations (0.5%, 2.8%, 5% ethanol). Consumers (n = 101) indicated their liking using temporal liking (TL) methodology (rated throughout consumption) and overall liking (rated at the end of consumption). Consumers also denoted the sensory properties perceived using temporal Check-All-That-Apply (TCATA). Overall, liking data divided consumers into 3 clusters with different patterns of liking. As ethanol concentration increased from 0 to 5%, the TL time that best predicted overall liking shifted from 60 s to 10–20 s indicating that liking of higher alcohol products was decided earlier on in consumption. Data suggested that in a lower ethanol beer, a liking judgement may not be stabilized until later in the evaluation, while in high ethanol beers, a liking judgement, either positive or negative, stabilised more rapidly. TCATA results revealed different temporal sensory profiles among the different ethanol concentrations. As ethanol concentration increased, the citation of sweetness, fullness/body and alcohol warming sensation increased. However, the relationship between TCATA citations and TL varied among the three clusters highlighting that, in relation to ethanol concentration, different negative and positive sensory drivers of preference exist for different segments of consumers.

Importance of Applying Condiments in a Commonly Consumed Food System for Understanding the Association Between Familiarity and Sensory Drivers of Liking: A Study Focused on Doenjang.

Compared to the original condiment form, expectation difference between the young and the elderly were better revealed in Deonjang soup, a food form normally consumed in practice. Thus, the results of this study reinforced the importance of investigating sensory drivers of liking for a condiment in a food form that is normally consumed in practice for accurate understanding on consumer preference.

What is lost in translation: A cross-cultural study to compare the concept of nuttiness and its perception in soymilk among Korean, Chinese, and Western groups

Cross-cultural communication of “nuttiness” can be problematic because the underlying conceptual elements and words used to describe its features may be largely culture-dependent. The present study was conducted to understand similarities and dissimilarities in the concept of nuttiness and its actual perception in our model food system, soymilk, among similar (Korean and Chinese) and dissimilar (Western) food cultures. In total, 110 Koreans, 103 Chinese, and 93 English-speaking, Western consumers were recruited. Subjects were asked to provide a definition of nuttiness and generate examples of nutty and non-nutty foods. They also rated the intensity of the nuttiness of 8 soymilk samples. Sensory profiles of 8 soymilk samples were obtained using 9 trained panelists. Data from the definition task were processed through textual analysis. To identify sensory drivers, consumer ratings of perceived nuttiness intensity in soymilk were projected onto a sensory space constructed from the descriptive profiles of nuttiness. We found significant association between culture and usage of specific words (χ270, 0.05=155.8, p<0.001). For example, whereas the concept of nuttiness in the Korean group involved sensory experiences evoked by sesame, roasted, proteic, or fatty foods, in Westerners, it was more nut-oriented. In contrast, the Chinese group associated nuttiness with general characteristics and hedonic dimensions such as good and comfort, rather than with specific foods. However, sensory drivers of nuttiness in soymilk were consistent across cultures. We found that although the abstract definition of nuttiness clearly demonstrated cross-cultural differences, sensory perception of nuttiness was almost identical across all groups. This suggests that cultural background influences verbalization of one's perception, but not the actual perception itself.

Sensory Properties and Drivers of Liking for Pizza Crust

Sensory Properties and Drivers of Liking for Pizza Crust