Sensorimotor Patterns Research Articles

SEEING AND COMMUNICATING THROUGH WEAK ELECTRIC FIELDS

![][1] Weakly electric fish spend their lives bathed in their own internally generated mild electric field, interpreting perturbations in the field as objects pass through and when communicating with members of their own species through high frequency electric ‘chirps’. Rudiger

A dynamical systems account of sensorimotor contingencies.

According to the sensorimotor approach, perception is a form of embodied know-how, constituted by lawful regularities in the sensorimotor flow or in sensorimotor contingencies (SMCs) in an active and situated agent. Despite the attention that this approach has attracted, there have been few attempts to define its core concepts formally. In this paper, we examine the idea of SMCs and argue that its use involves notions that need to be distinguished. We introduce four distinct kinds of SMCs, which we define operationally. These are the notions of sensorimotor environment (open-loop motor-induced sensory variations), sensorimotor habitat (closed-loop sensorimotor trajectories), sensorimotor coordination (reliable sensorimotor patterns playing a functional role), and sensorimotor strategy (normative organization of sensorimotor coordinations). We make use of a minimal dynamical model of visually guided categorization to test the explanatory value of the different kinds of SMCs. Finally, we discuss the impact of our definitions on the conceptual development and empirical as well as model-based testing of the claims of the sensorimotor approach.

Error-enhancing robot therapy to induce motor control improvement in childhood onset primary dystonia

BackgroundRobot-generated deviating forces during multijoint reaching movements have been applied to investigate motor control and to tune neuromotor adaptation. Can the application of force to limbs improve motor learning? In this framework, the response to altered dynamic environments of children affected by primary dystonia has never been studied.MethodsAs preliminary pilot study, eleven children with primary dystonia and eleven age-matched healthy control subjects were asked to perform upper limb movements, triangle-reaching (three directions) and circle-writing, using a haptic robot interacting with ad-hoc developed task-specific visual interfaces. Three dynamic conditions were provided, null additive external force (A), constant disturbing force (B) and deactivation of the additive external force again (C). The path length for each trial was computed, from the recorded position data and interaction events.ResultsThe results show that the disturbing force affects significantly the movement outcomes in healthy but not in dystonic subjects, already compromised in the reference condition: the external alteration uncalibrates the healthy sensorimotor system, while the dystonic one is already strongly uncalibrated. The lack of systematic compensation for perturbation effects during B condition is reflected into the absence of after-effects in C condition, which would be the evidence that CNS generates a prediction of the perturbing forces using an internal model of the environment.The most promising finding is that in dystonic population the altered dynamic exposure seems to induce a subsequent improvement, i.e. a beneficial after-effect in terms of optimal path control, compared with the correspondent reference movement outcome.ConclusionsThe short-time error-enhancing training in dystonia could represent an effective approach for motor performance improvement, since the exposure to controlled dynamic alterations induces a refining of the existing but strongly imprecise motor scheme and sensorimotor patterns.

The avian midbrain and the tecto-isthmic circuit: Cells, Circuits, Concepts

Event Abstract Back to Event The avian midbrain and the tecto-isthmic circuit: Cells, Circuits, Concepts Harald Luksch1* 1 Technische Universität München, Department of Animal Science, Germany The vertebrate dorsal midbrain (superior colliculus in mammals, optic tectum in all other vertebrate classes) is a central interface between sensory stimuli and behavioral motor patterns. The tectum consists of multiple laminae with specific cell types and connectivity with many similarities between vertebrate classes. The tectum receives a strong retinal projection that forms a map of visual space in the upper layers. This map acts as a master coordinate system for other sensory afferents (auditory, somatosensory etc.), leading to a multimodal representation of the sensory environment. While the size of the optic tectum is variable among vertebrates, the sensorimotor functions of the tectum appear to be conserved for all vertebrate classes. While a homologation of the midbrain across vertebrates is difficult, I will discuss a hypothesis to explain the anatomical change that occurred during mammalian evolution. With a high degree of structural order, identifiable cell types and known input and output connectivity, the analysis of the tectum with a combined experimental-computational approach can provide a mechanistic understanding of sensory computation. By integration of projections with other visual and non-visual nuclei in the brain, the basic neuronal computations can be gradually extended to generate more complex functions. Recent advances have been made in the analysis of feedback loops formed between the optic tectum and a group of nuclei in the isthmic area in several bird species. The function of these circuits is considered to be a bottom-up attentional system that identifies the most salient object and allows for both orienting movements as well as fast motor responses in, for example, escape behaviours. These functions are not restricted to visual computation, but (taking into account the tectal role as a multisensory spatial center) deals predominantly with spatial coordinates to identify potential targets through a saliency-based process. Recent electrophysiological as well as modelling studies in the chicken midbrain have suggested that a variety of mechanisms is implemented in the tecto-isthmic network, ranging from stimulus competition and attentional switching to inhibition of return and novelty preference. Most of these functions are however mechanisms that comprise the entire network and are hard to evaluate from single-cell recordings, but require the analysis of the network’s spatio-temporal activation pattern. To this end, we have taken to optical imaging of voltage-dependent dyes in a slice preparation where the tecto-isthmic network is largely intact. By mimicking sensory input with patterned electrical stimulation, we can record the network activation upon various stimulation protocols and evaluate whether the current models of tecto-isthmic circuitry are valid. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience in Munich, Germany Keywords: feedback circuits, isthmic system, multimodal integration, tectum opticum Conference: Tenth International Congress of Neuroethology, College Park. Maryland USA, United States, 5 Aug - 10 Aug, 2012. Presentation Type: Poster Presentation (see alternatives below as well) Topic: Sensorimotor Integration Citation: Luksch H (2012). The avian midbrain and the tecto-isthmic circuit: Cells, Circuits, Concepts. Conference Abstract: Tenth International Congress of Neuroethology. doi: 10.3389/conf.fnbeh.2012.27.00321 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 30 Apr 2012; Published Online: 07 Jul 2012. * Correspondence: Prof. Harald Luksch, Technische Universität München, Department of Animal Science, Freising-Weihenstephan, Bavaria, 85354, Germany, harald.luksch@wzw.tum.de Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. 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Spatiotemporal relations of primary sensorimotor and secondary motor activation patterns mapped by NIR imaging

Functional near infrared (fNIR) imaging was used to identify spatiotemporal relations between spatially distinct cortical regions activated during various hand and arm motion protocols. Imaging was performed over a field of view (FOV, 12 x 8.4 cm) including the secondary motor, primary sensorimotor, and the posterior parietal cortices over a single brain hemisphere. This is a more extended FOV than typically used in current fNIR studies. Three subjects performed four motor tasks that induced activation over this extended FOV. The tasks included card flipping (pronation and supination) that, to our knowledge, has not been performed in previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or fNIR studies. An earlier rise and a longer duration of the hemodynamic activation response were found in tasks requiring increased physical or mental effort. Additionally, analysis of activation images by cluster component analysis (CCA) demonstrated that cortical regions can be grouped into clusters, which can be adjacent or distant from each other, that have similar temporal activation patterns depending on whether the performed motor task is guided by visual or tactile feedback. These analyses highlight the future potential of fNIR imaging to tackle clinically relevant questions regarding the spatiotemporal relations between different sensorimotor cortex regions, e.g. ones involved in the rehabilitation response to motor impairments.

Sensorimotor integration for speech motor learning involves the inferior parietal cortex

Sensorimotor integration is important for motor learning. The inferior parietal lobe, through its connections with the frontal lobe and cerebellum, has been associated with multisensory integration and sensorimotor adaptation for motor behaviors other than speech. In the present study, the contribution of the inferior parietal cortex to speech motor learning was evaluated using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) prior to a speech motor adaptation task. Subjects' auditory feedback was altered in a manner consistent with the auditory consequences of an unintended change in tongue position during speech production, and adaptation performance was used to evaluate sensorimotor plasticity and short-term learning. Prior to the feedback alteration, rTMS or sham stimulation was applied over the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG). Subjects who underwent the sham stimulation exhibited a robust adaptive response to the feedback alteration whereas subjects who underwent rTMS exhibited a diminished adaptive response. The results suggest that the inferior parietal region, in and around SMG, plays a role in sensorimotor adaptation for speech. The interconnections of the inferior parietal cortex with inferior frontal cortex, cerebellum and primary sensory areas suggest that this region may be an important component in learning and adapting sensorimotor patterns for speech.

Multiple Time Scales Recurrent Neural Network for Complex Action Acquisition

This paper presents novel results of complex action learning experiments based on the use of extended multiple timescales recurrent neural networks (MTRNN). The experiments were carried out with the iCub humanoid robot, as a model of the developmental learning of motor primitives as the basis of sensorimotor and linguistic compositionality. The model was implemented through the Aquila cognitive robotics toolkit, which supports the CUDA architecture and makes use of massively parallel GPUs (graphics processing units). The results presented herein show that the model was able to learn and successfully reproduce multiple behavioural sequences of actions in an object manipulation task scenario using large-scale MTRNNs. This forms the basis on ongoing experiments on action and language compositionality

Functional Changes in Neocortical Activity in Huntington's Disease Model Mice: An in vivo Intracellular Study

Studies of animal models of Huntington's disease (HD) have revealed that neocortical and neostriatal neurons of these animals in vitro exhibit a number of morphological and physiological changes, including increased input resistance and changes in neocortical synaptic inputs. We measured the functional effects of polyglutamate accumulation in neocortical neurons in R6/2 mice (8–14 weeks of age) and their age-matched non-transgenic littermates using in vivo intracellular recordings. All neurons showed spontaneous membrane potential fluctuations. The current/voltage and the firing properties of the HD neocortical neurons were significantly altered, especially in the physiologically relevant current range around and below threshold. As a result, membrane potential transitions from the Down state to Up state were evoked with smaller currents in HD neocortical neurons than in controls. The excitation-to-frequency curves of the HD mice were significantly steeper than those of controls, indicating a smaller input–output dynamic range for these neurons. Increased likelihood of Down to Up state transitions could cause pathological recruitment of corticostriatal assemblies by increasing correlated neuronal activity. We measured coherence of the in vivo intracellular recordings with simultaneously recorded electrocorticograms. We found that the peak of the coherence at <5 Hz was significantly smaller in the HD animals, indicating that the amount of coherence in the state transitions of single neurons is less correlated with global activity than non-transgenic controls. We propose that decreased correlation of neocortical inputs may be a major physiological cause underlying the errors in sensorimotor pattern generation in HD.

FRUITFUL SEARCH FOR SEX CIRCUITS IN FLIES

In most animals, males and females show different (dimorphic) patterns of behaviour. But we know relatively little about how the neural circuits that underlie sexually dimorphic behaviours are organized. Jai Yu and colleagues at the Research Institute of Molecular Pathology in Austria, in collaboration with Greg Jefferis at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, UK, recently attempted to untangle sex-specific neural circuitry in fruit flies. In a recent paper published in Current Biology, they attempted to map out connectivity among the neurons that control how male flies court female flies.In the presence of females, male fly brains integrate sensory cues and produce complex motor output in the form of stereotyped leg, abdomen and wing movements (including an audible courtship ‘song’ generated by the wings). The behaviours are innate, and a male version (splice variant) of the gene fruitless controls the entire behavioural sequence. Females expressing the male version of the gene behave like males; males without the male version behave like females. The gene is expressed in ∼1500 neurons throughout the fly brain. How does this constellation of neurons control a complex sequence of sex-specific behaviours? Yu and colleagues reasoned that the essential first step was to simply examine how fruitless expressing neurons connect to one another in male and female brains. To begin with, they developed a genetic technique that allowed them to systematically visualize the anatomy of small numbers of fruitless expressing neurons throughout the brain. After generating hundreds of genetic lines with different groups of fruitless neurons labelled, they then charted where individual groups of neurons were in relation to each other and common structural landmarks. Examination of the overlap among cellular processes from different groups allowed the team to make predictions about how fruitless expressing cells are connected to one another in males and females.First the group showed that multiple fruitless expressing sensory pathways converge on one part of the fly brain (lateral protocerebral complex), suggesting that this area is the core site for integration of sensory cues during courtship. Next they identified pathways for motor output from the lateral protocerebral complex. Surprisingly, when they compared dimorphisms between males and females, they only found 11 anatomical dimorphisms in the circuit. Interestingly, they also uncovered a general rule: neurons that are present in both sexes but have dimorphic arborizations tend to be in primary sensory pathways or motor pattern generating circuits, whereas sex-specific neurons are usually in areas postulated to be involved in higher order information processing (e.g. lateral protocerebral complex). These results suggest that anatomical dimorphisms are actually not that common in the circuit, and are concentrated primarily in areas of the brain that are involved in making decisions.Overall, Yu and co-workers have done something in flies that is very difficult to do in most animals. They have constructed a comprehensive potential wiring diagram for a large circuit controlling complex sex-specific behaviours. That said, it is important to remember that this work only predicts where connections could be – it does not actually prove the presence of any synapses. But this is what makes this paper great; it generates a large number of testable hypotheses and opens up new opportunities to study how neural circuits give rise to sexually dimorphic behaviour.

Motor synchrony and the emergence of trust in social economics games

Event Abstract Back to Event Motor synchrony and the emergence of trust in social economics games Olivier Oullier1, 2*, Sylvie Thoron2, Jean‐Marc Aimonetti3, Eric Guerci2, Pascal Huguet1 and Alan Kirman2 1 Aix-Marseille University, Cognitive Psychology Laboratory (UMR 6146), Universite de Provence & CNRS, France 2 Universite Paul Cezanne, GREQAM (UMR 6579), France 3 Aix-Marseille University, Human Neurobiology Laboratory (UMR 6149), Universite de Provence, France To date, experiments in economics are mainly restricted to settings in which individuals are not influenced by the physical presence of other people. Interactions remain at a somewhat abstract level with bodily signals being left out of the picture. However, in real life, how many times have we experienced the feeling that trusting someone will be difficult even before talking to them? Whether it was the way she moved or some other factor, body‐related cues seem to play key role in modulating economic decisions (e.g. mimicry and tipping). This is why we have decided to cross social coordination dynamics (SCD) with behavioral economics. SCD investigates the behavioral and neural mechanisms mediating the formation and dissolution of bonds between individuals. It offers new metrics to quantify human bonding (or lack thereof) at the sensorimotor level, and the self‐organizing processes that underlie its persistence and change over space and time. SCD allows spontaneous motor synchronization while people interact and the degree to which their individual movements remain influenced a posteriori –some kind of motor social memory‐ to be computed in real time. Here, pairs of participants performed multiple rounds of the SCD paradigm and of a trust game in various fashions. Results indicate that the amount of money exchanged during the trust game is correlated to the stability of the sensorimotor patterns of spontaneous synchrony emerging between participants as well as the level of motor social memory. They constitute a first (experimental) step towards embodied economics.

2A1-A21 シンボルコミュニケーションに基づく他者の感覚運動情報の推定 : 感覚運動情報のシンボル化戦略の獲得に関する考察

2A1-A21 シンボルコミュニケーションに基づく他者の感覚運動情報の推定 : 感覚運動情報のシンボル化戦略の獲得に関する考察

Speaking with a single cerebral hemisphere: fMRI language organization after hemispherectomy in childhood

Speech-related fMRI activation was examined in six hemispherectomy patients (three left LX, three right RX, four with congenital and two with late-acquired hemiplegia) operated in childhood for the relief of drug-resistant epilepsy. Although the temporal and sensorimotor pattern of activation was similar to that found in neurologically intact control participants, activation in Broca’s area and its right homolog varied greatly. Involvement of pars triangularis and orbitalis was found in the three cases with best outcome (two RX, one LX), whereas pars opercularis alone was activated in the two remaining LX patients. The results suggest that distinct subregions of Broca’s area and their right homologs can subserve speech and language, and that this variability may determine functional outcome.

Bedside assessment of sympathetic skin response after spinal cord injury: a brief report comparing inspiratory gasp and visual stimulus

A case control study in five controls, and 20 tetraplegic and paraplegic patients, complete and incomplete. The aim was to assess the feasibility of a simple test for sympathetic system preservation after spinal cord damage in a pain-free manner and which could be undertaken worldwide without specialist equipment or manpower. Patients were attending the Southport Regional Spinal Injuries Centre, England, either as outpatients or as in-patients during rehabilitation. The sympathetic skin response (SSR) was recorded on a single-channel ECG recorder from the right hand and right foot in turn after inspiratory gasp (IG) or visual stimulation. Unlike the visually evoked SSR, the gasp-evoked SSR was reliable, albeit of variable amplitude, and there was little difference between the hand and foot. Paraplegics had similar SSRs in the hands as the controls. There was minor insignificant habituation of response for the gasp reflex. There was occasional unexpected SSR distally in patients with complete lesions, and in patients with incomplete lesions the responses could not have been predicted from the sensory motor pattern. Trained IG induces an SSR which is sufficient to elucidate sympathetic loss following spinal cord injury. It is superior to visual stimulation in this respect. Habituation is not a problem with at least 1 min between tests, and high doses of anticholinergics agents may impair the response.

Video Analysis of Sensory-Motor Features in Infants with Fragile X Syndrome at 9–12 Months of Age

This study utilized retrospective video analysis to distinguish sensory-motor patterns in infants with fragile X syndrome (FXS) (n = 11) from other infants [i.e., autism (n = 11), other developmental delay (n = 10), typical (n = 11)] at 9-12 months of age. Measures of development, autistic features, and FMRP were assessed at the time of entry into the study. Home videos collected from families were edited and coded with previously validated procedures. Findings revealed a pattern of sensory-motor features (e.g., repetitive leg movements, posturing, less sophistication/repetitive use of objects) associated with FXS, and suggest these infants were most similar to the group of infants with other developmental delays, irrespective of co-existing autistic symptoms later in life. Infant sensory-motor features in the FXS group were more predictive of an early developmental milestone (i.e., age walking) than later, more broad, developmental outcomes, or FMRP. Implications for early identification and differential diagnosis are discussed.

Learning visuomotor transformations for gaze-control and grasping

For reaching to and grasping of an object, visual information about the object must be transformed into motor or postural commands for the arm and hand. In this paper, we present a robot model for visually guided reaching and grasping. The model mimics two alternative processing pathways for grasping, which are also likely to coexist in the human brain. The first pathway directly uses the retinal activation to encode the target position. In the second pathway, a saccade controller makes the eyes (cameras) focus on the target, and the gaze direction is used instead as positional input. For both pathways, an arm controller transforms information on the target's position and orientation into an arm posture suitable for grasping. For the training of the saccade controller, we suggest a novel staged learning method which does not require a teacher that provides the necessary motor commands. The arm controller uses unsupervised learning: it is based on a density model of the sensor and the motor data. Using this density, a mapping is achieved by completing a partially given sensorimotor pattern. The controller can cope with the ambiguity in having a set of redundant arm postures for a given target. The combined model of saccade and arm controller was able to fixate and grasp an elongated object with arbitrary orientation and at arbitrary position on a table in 94% of trials.

Spectrum of cutaneous hyperalgesias/allodynias in neuropathic pain patients

The aim of this study was to discern the pathophysio-logical bases for neuropathic hyperalgesias. In this study, neurological and neurophysiological evaluation of 132 consecutive hyperalgesia patients using rigorous clinical and laboratory protocols were carried out. Two discrete semeiologic entities emerged: classic neurological vs atypical, fulfilling taxonomically complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) II and I, respectively. The classic group (34.9%) exhibited sensorimotor patterns restricted to nerve distribution and documented nerve fiber dysfunction. Among them four (3.03%) had sensitization of C-nociceptors, seven (5.3%) had central release of nociceptive input, and 35 (26.52%) probable ectopic nerve impulse generation. The atypical group (65.1%) displayed weakness with interrupted effort; non-anatomical hypoesthesia and hyperalgesia; hypoesthesia or paresis reversed by placebo, or atypical abnormal movements, and physiological normality of motor and sensory pathways. Spatiotemporal features of neuropathic hyperalgesia constitute key criteria for differential diagnosis between CRPS II and I and, together with other behavioral sensorimotor features, signal psychogenic pseudoneurological dysfunction vs structural neuropathology. 'Neuropathic' hyperalgesias may reflect neuropathological or psychopathological disorders.

An instance of coincidence detection architecture relying on temporal coding.

Although time and space are interrelated in every occurrence of real-world events, only spatial codes are used at the basic level of most computational architectures. Inspired by neurobiological facts and hypotheses that assign a primordial coding role to the temporal dimension, and developed to address both cognitive and engineering applications, guided propagation networks (GPNs) are aimed at a generic real-time machine, based on time-space coincidence testing. The involved temporal parameters are gradually introduced, in relation with complementary applications in the field of human-machine communication: sensori-motor modeling, pattern recognition and natural language processing.

Projection patterns of posterior dorsal unpaired median neurons of the locust subesophageal ganglion.

Six neurons in a group of dorsal unpaired median (DUM) neurons with cell bodies in the posterior part-maxillary and labial neuromeres-of the subesophageal ganglion of locusts have two axons each that descend into both the left and the right halves of the ganglia of the ventral nerve cord. None of the neurons has peripheral axons, so they are interneurons. Electrophysiology shows that the axons of at least four neurons project to the terminal abdominal ganglion to which they conduct spikes at a velocity of 0.5-0.6 m. second(-1). In the somata, the spikes have a smaller amplitude and briefer duration at half height than the spikes of thoracic, efferent DUM neurons. Each neuron has bilaterally symmetrical branches within the subesophageal ganglion and in the thoracic ganglia. On the basis of the specific patterns of branches, and the neuropiles, tracts, and commissures in which they occur, three types of neurons (DUM SD 1-3) can be recognized. DUM SD 1 and 3 project to ventral regions of neuropile in the thoracic ganglia in which the efferent DUM neurons of these ganglia have no branches. DUM SD 2 projects to dorsal neuropiles. The projection patterns of these putatively octopaminergic neurons suggest that they could be the source of the octopaminergic modulation of networks underlying sensory processing and motor pattern generation within these ganglia. Within this group of posterior DUM neurons, two additional cells were stained that have axons ascending to the brain.

Engrailed-1 expression marks a primitive class of inhibitory spinal interneuron.

Studies in chicks and mice have suggested that transcription factors mark functional subtypes of interneurons in the developing spinal cord. We used genetic, morphological, and physiological studies to test this proposed association in zebrafish. We found that Engrailed-1 expression uniquely marks a class of ascending interneurons, called circumferential ascending (CiA) interneurons, with ipsilateral axonal projections in both motor and sensory regions of spinal cord. These cells express the glycine transporter 2 gene and are the only known ipsilateral interneurons positive for this marker of inhibitory transmission. Patch recordings show that the CiA neurons are rhythmically active during swimming. Pairwise recordings from the CiA interneurons and postsynaptic cells reveal that the Engrailed-1 neurons produce monosynaptic, strychnine-sensitive inhibition of dorsal sensory interneurons and also inhibit more ventral neurons, including motoneurons and descending interneurons. We conclude that Engrailed-1 expression marks a class of inhibitory interneuron that seems to provide all of the ipsilateral glycinergic inhibition in the spinal cord of embryonic and larval fish. Individual Engrailed-1-positive cells are multifunctional, playing roles in both sensory gating and motor pattern generation. This primitive cell type may have given rise to several, more specialized glycinergic inhibitory interneurons in birds and mammals. Our data support the view that the subdivision of spinal cord into different regions by transcription factors defines a primitive functional organization of spinal interneurons that formed a developmental and evolutionary foundation on which more complex systems were built.

Neural plasticity and consciousness: Reply to Block

We propose that perceptual quality can be explained by the way neural states figure in dynamic sensorimotor patterns [1–4]. Is this a version of functionalism, as Block [5] and Gray [6] suggest? No. First, our proposal is compatible with physicalism, that is, with the idea that phenomenology goes with brain state. We reject only a physicalism that holds that properties of cortical states activated by sensory input alone are sufficient for experience. In our view, the relevant neural substrates are dynamic and sensorimotor. Second, we do not hypothesize that function is (or determines) phenomenology. Rather, we propose that sensorimotor context explains the phenomenology. Even on the assumption that phenomenology correlates with neural states, it remains open whether one can bridge the explanatory gaps. One can bridge these gaps, we argue, by looking to dynamic sensorimotor context.