Senegal Research Articles

Frequency of beta S globin gene haplotypes among sickle cell patients in Nigeria.

ObjectiveTo determine the frequency of beta s globin gene haplotypes in Nigerian patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) and to measure their correlation with clinical and haematological characteristics.MethodsThis study enrolled patients with SCD and collected their peripheral blood for restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis in order to identify five polymorphic sites in the β-globin gene cluster.ResultsA total of 245 homozygous SCD patients (490 alleles) were included in the study. Among the analysed alleles, 426 (86.9%) had the Benin (BEN) haplotype; 19 (3.9%) had the Senegal (SEN) haplotype; 31 (6.3%) had the Cameroon haplotype; five (1.0%) had the Bantu/Central African Republic haplotype; and nine 9 (1.8%) had atypical haplotypes. No significant association was observed between the haplotypes and haematological events, although patients with the BEN/SEN haplotype showed improved red blood cell counts, haemoglobin levels and red blood cell width index. No significant association was observed between the haplotypes and the three clinical manifestations, although patients with the BEN/SEN haplotype showed a four-fold lower frequency of painful episodes.ConclusionThese findings suggest that the SEN haplotype combined with the BEN haplotype might contribute toward a better haematological profile and milder clinical severity in SCD.

Evaluation of seedlings of oil palm germplasm from Sierra Leone and Senegal in India

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) germplasm of present study namely, Sierra Leone (SLE) and Senegal (SEN) are important genetic resource as their diversity is presumably very high due to their locations in the centre of origin of West Africa. A total of nine accessions each from two sources (SEN and SLE) were evaluated for vegetative growth traits in the nursery viz, seedling height, stem height, collar girth, leaf number, length of leaf, width of leaf, leaf area, petiole thickness and petiole length of the seedlings and their diversity were estimated using Shannon Weaver Index (SWI). The results revealed that accessions namely, SLE14 (66) and SLE13 (349) showed vigorous seedling growth; whereas, SEN02 (191) had shown dwarf vegetative growth. Diversity estimates ranged from 0.00 in SLE12 (186) for number of leaves and 0.954 in SEN01 (38) for collar girth. SLE01 (38) and SLE03 (17) had shown high diversity estimates and lowest diversity estimate was observed in SEN01 (284). Sierra Lone sources of accessions showed higher diversity than those from Senegal. Outcome obtained from the present nursery study can be utilized for advanced breeding evaluation in matured palms.

Unusual β-Globin Haplotype Distribution in Newborns from Bengo, Angola

Mutations on the HBB gene are a common cause of hemoglobinopathies, including sickle cell anemia, a severe genetic condition that constitutes a major public health concern. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of sickle cell anemia and β-globin haplotype distribution in newborns from the Bengo region. The first two exons of β-globin gene were sequenced, and the variability at the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) defining the Hb S (HBB: c.20A>T) haplotypes, was analyzed by a SNaPshot® Multiplex system. About 3.3% of the children were homozygous for Hb S, and 82.2% had as background the Bantu/Central African Republic (BAN/CAR) haplotype, 11.2% the Benin (BEN) and 6.6% the Senegal (SEN). The estimate of Hb S reached the very high value of 0.1476 ± 0.0133, with the aggravating factor of 82.2% of the sickle alleles being anchored in the BAN/CAR haplotype, associated with the more severe sickle cell anemia phenotypes. Also, the high prevalence of the SEN haplotype was not expected, having therapeutic consequences since is associated with more severe outcomes. In addition, two β-thalassemia (β-thal) variants were also detected, IVS I-110 (G>A) (HBB: c.93-21G>A) and codon 39 (C>T) (HBB: c.118C>T), together totaling a frequency of 1.3%. Some of the newborns with these mutations were compound heterozygotes for Hb S, likely carrying genotypes consistent with sickle cell disease. As a whole, infants molecularly diagnosed with sickle cell disease accounted for 4.5% of newborns from Bengo, Angola, a figure that per se, highlights the urgent need of implementing policies warranting surveillance of these children, in parallel with community education in the region.

Geographic variation of host preference by the invasive tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta: implications for host range expansion

Host range evolution is a central issue for pest management, particularly for invasive species of agricultural importance. The invasive tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), a key pest of tomato in Europe and recently in sub-Saharan Africa, is a good model organism to better understand underlying processes. We studied oviposition acceptance (proportion of females accepting a given plant as host for laying egg), oviposition preference (number of eggs laid by females on a given host plant) and performance (offspring development estimated as survival from egg to adult) of two T. absoluta populations originating from France (FRA) and Senegal (SEN) on six solanaceous plants (tomato, eggplant, Ethiopian eggplant, potato, sweet pepper and pepper). The ovipositional behavioral pattern differed between the two populations; the SEN population showed higher oviposition acceptance on Ethiopian eggplant and sweet pepper than the FRA population. In addition, SEN population showed higher oviposition preference toward sweet pepper and potato than the FRA population. By contrast, the FRA population showed higher preference toward tomato and eggplant than the SEN population. The two populations of T. absoluta performed best on tomato (the preferred host plant) and showed similar decreasing trend in performance when comparing the two populations on the various other host plants. For both populations, performance on solanaceous plant species was closely related to ovipositional response of females to these plants. The differences observed between the two populations may indicate an ongoing differentiation in the host range of T. absoluta in the two invaded areas, possibly due to the abundance of these alternative host crops in Senegal at a period when tomato crops are scarce.

Biological impact of α genes, β haplotypes, and G6PD activity in sickle cell anemia at baseline and with hydroxyurea

AbstractSickle cell anemia (SCA), albeit monogenic, has heterogeneous phenotypic expression, mainly related to the level of hemoglobin F (HbF). No large cohort studies have ever compared biological parameters in patients with major β-globin haplotypes; ie, Senegal (SEN), Benin (BEN), and Bantu/Central African Republic (CAR). The aim of this study was to evaluate the biological impact of α genes, β haplotypes, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity at baseline and with hydroxyurea (HU). Homozygous HbS patients from the Créteil pediatric cohort with available α-gene and β-haplotype data were included (n = 580; 301 females and 279 males) in this retrospective study. Homozygous β-haplotype patients represented 74% of cases (37.4% CAR/CAR, 24.3% BEN/BEN, and 12.1% SEN/SEN). HU was given to 168 cohort SCA children. Hematological parameters were recorded when HbF was maximal, and changes (ΔHU-T0) were calculated. At baseline, CAR-haplotype and α-gene numbers were independently and negatively correlated with Hb and positively correlated with lactate dehydrogenase. HbF was negatively correlated with CAR-haplotype numbers and positively with BEN- and SEN-haplotype numbers. The BCL11A/rs1427407 “T” allele, which is favorable for HbF expression, was positively correlated with BEN- and negatively correlated with CAR-haplotype numbers. With HU treatment, Δ and HbF values were positively correlated with the BEN-haplotype number. BEN/BEN patients had higher HbF and Hb levels than CAR/CAR and SEN/SEN patients. In conclusion, we show that BEN/BEN patients have the best response on HU and suggest that this could be related to the higher prevalence of the favorable BCL11A/rs1427407/T/allele for HbF expression in these patients.

The frequency of βS-globin haplotypes in the state of Paraná, Brazil, and clinical manifestations of sickle cell anemia

ABSTRACT Introduction: Haplotypes in the β S-globin cluster are named according to their geographical origin as Central African Republic (CAR), Benin (BEN), Senegal (SEN), Cameroon (CAM) and Arab-Indian. They are considered to have influence on the diversity of clinical manifestations in sickle cell anemia (HbSS). Objective: To identify β S haplotypes and genotypes, their frequencies and their probable association with clinical presentation in patients with sickle cell anemia in the state of Parana. Method: Longitudinal and descriptive study for the definition of haplotypes, and associative study for analysis of their influence on clinical severity. By polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP), polymorphic regions of 100 HbSS patients were identified. The association of haplotypes with clinical manifestations was analyzed in a subset of 52 pediatric patients. Results: In the state of Parana, haplotype frequencies were: CAR: 76% BEN: 17.5% SEN: 0.5%, CAM: 0.5% and Atypical (Atp): 5.5%. Genotype frequencies were: CAR/CAR: 62%; CAR/BEN: 20%; CAR/Atp: 6%; CAR/ SEN: 1%; CAR/CAM: 1%; BEN/BEN: 6%; BEN/Atp: 3%, Atp/Atp: 1%. The average percentage of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) in CAR/CAR and CAR/BEN patients was higher than in other studies. Clinical manifestations were not influenced by β S haplotypes. Dactylitis and splenic sequestration occurred more frequently in children below 3 years of age. Conclusion: In this study, no association was found between haplotypes and clinical manifestations, probably given the almost absolute predominance of CAR and BEN haplotypes. However, this fact alerts to the possible influence of other polymorphisms and miscegenation in the Brazilian population.

Impact of α-Gene Deletions and β-Globin Cluster Haplotypes on Biological Parameters at Baseline and on Hydroxyurea in Children with Sickle Cell Anemia

Despite being a monogenic disease, sickle cell anemia (SCA) is remarkably heterogeneous in its phenotypic expression. Additional genetic polymorphisms such as α-thalassemia co-inheritance and β-globin haplotypes have a recognized influence. Alpha-thalassemia reduces HbS polymerization and decreases hemolysis by lowering intracellular hemoglobin concentration. The three major β-globin haplotypes, Senegal (SEN), Benin (BEN) and Bantu/Central African Republic (CAR), have been reported to affect disease severity, in part by influencing baseline HbF levels, but no studies in large cohorts have so far compared the biological parameters in patients with these haplotypes. The haplotype BEN is largely predominant in the US, and patients are often compound heterozygotes for two different haplotypes, whereas the haplotype CAR is rarely observed. In Africa, environmental, nutritional and infectious factors make it difficult to distinguish the role of haplotypes in modulating hematological characteristics. In France, SCA-patients are frequently homozygous for the different haplotypes, rendering the comparison of hematological parameters possible. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of α-thalassemia and β-haplotypes on the biological parameters recorded at baseline and on hydroxyurea (HU).SCA-patients from the Créteil pediatric cohort with available assessment of α genes, β-haplotypes and baseline parameters were included in this study (n=578). Alpha-thalassemia was present in 254/578 (44%), with 191 (33%) having one deleted gene and 63 (10.9%) two. CAR/CAR homozygosity was present in 216 (37.4%), BEN/BEN in 140 (24.2%) and SEN/SEN in 69 (11.9%) patients, and 153 (26.5%) had other haplotypes (Cameroon, atypical or heterozygous). The presence of α-Thal was significantly more frequent (p<0.001) in CAR/CAR (121/216; 56%) than in BEN/BEN (43/140; 31%) and SEN/SEN (19/69, 28%). Univariate correlations of biological parameters with the number of α genes and β-haplotypes are shown in Table 1. Multivariate linear regression analysis showed that HbF% was positively correlated with SEN (β=0.152,p=0.003) and negatively with CAR (β=-0.189,p<0.001) whereas hemoglobin and LDH were inversely correlated with the number of α genes (β=-0.225,p<0.001 and β=0.201,p<0.001) and CAR haplotypes (β=-0.230,p<0.001 and β=0.171,p=0.001) respectively. As shown in Table 2, hemoglobin and HbF% were significantly lower in CAR/CAR than in BEN/BEN, and lower in BEN/BEN than in SEN/SEN, independently of the α-Thal status. Whereas LDH was not different in patients with α-Thal, LDH was significantly higher in CAR/CAR than in BEN/BEN and SEN/SEN in those with no α-Thal. Thus, the CAR/CAR patients with no α-Thal have the most severe hemolytic anemia with the lowest Hb and highest LDH levels.Hydroxyurea was given to 168 SCA-children at the median age of 6.6 years and the median dose of 26 mg/kg/day for at least one year between February 1993 and December 2014. The biological parameters were recorded when HbF % increase was maximal, and the delta (D) values from the initiation levels were calculated. Indications for HU were frequent VOC/ACS (n=101), severe anemia (n=23), and normalized TCD in patients with abnormal-TCD history (n=44). Alpha-Thal was present in 72/168 (56%), while CAR/CAR was present in 77/168 (46%), BEN/BEN in 41/168 (24%), and SEN/SEN in 12/168 (7%). Table 3 summarizes the biological parameters and D changes. Paired analysis showed significant changes in all parameters whatever the β-haplotypes and α gene number. Leukocytes, neutrophils, platelets, reticulocytes, bilirubin, LDH were lower while hemoglobin, MCV and HbF were higher. However, the SEN/SEN/α-Thal group was too small to show significance. On HU, parameters were no longuer significantly different between CAR/CAR patients and the others, except for hemoglobin that remained significantly lower (p=0.008) in CAR/CAR patients without α-Thal than in BEN/BEN and SEN/SEN patients.In conclusion, patients without α-Thal and with the CAR/CAR β-haplotype have the most severe hemolytic anemia at baseline. Despite a significant increase of their hemoglobin level on HU, they remain the most severely anemic patients. These results may explain some of the discrepancies observed between US and French studies, in particular regarding the effects of HU on cerebral vasculopathy for which the correction of anemia is crucial. [Display omitted] DisclosuresNo relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Influence of temperature and relative humidity on survival and fecundity of three tsetse strains.

BackgroundTsetse flies occur in much of sub-Saharan Africa where they are vectors of trypanosomes that cause human and animal African trypanosomosis. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is currently used to eliminate tsetse fly populations in an area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) context in Senegal and Ethiopia. Three Glossina palpalis gambiensis strains [originating from Burkina Faso (BKF), Senegal (SEN) and an introgressed strain (SENbkf)] were established and are now available for use in future AW-IPM programmes against trypanosomes in West Africa. For each strain, knowledge of the environmental survival thresholds is essential to determine which of these strains is best suited to a particular environment or ecosystem, and can therefore be used effectively in SIT programmes.MethodsIn this paper, we investigated the survival and fecundity of three G. p. gambiensis strains maintained under various conditions: 25 °C and 40, 50, 60, and 75 % relative humidity (rH), 30 °C and 60 % rH and 35 °C and 60 % rH.ResultsThe survival of the three strains was dependent on temperature only, and it was unaffected by changing humidity within the tested range. The BKF strain survived temperatures above its optimum better than the SEN strain. The SENbkf showed intermediate resistance to high temperatures. A temperature of about 32 °C was the limit for survival for all strains. A rH ranging from 40 to 76 % had no effect on fecundity at 25–26 °C.ConclusionsWe discuss the implications of these results on tsetse SIT-based control programmes.

The effects of old and recent migration waves in the distribution of HBB*S globin gene haplotypes

Sickle cell hemoglobin is the result of a mutation at the sixth amino acid position of the beta (β) globin chain. The HBB*S gene is in linkage disequilibrium with five main haplotypes in the β-globin-like gene cluster named according to their ethnic and geographic origins: Bantu (CAR), Benin (BEN), Senegal (SEN), Cameroon (CAM) and Arabian-Indian (ARAB). These haplotypes demonstrated that the sickle cell mutation arose independently at least five times in human history. The distribution of βS haplotypes among Brazilian populations showed a predominance of the CAR haplotype. American populations were clustered in two groups defined by CAR or BEN haplotype frequencies. This scenario is compatible with historical records about the slave trade in the Americas. When all world populations where the sickle cell gene occurs were analyzed, three clusters were disclosed based on CAR, BEN or ARAB haplotype predominance. These patterns may change in the next decades due to recent migrations waves. Since these haplotypes show different clinical characteristics, these recent migrations events raise the necessity to develop optimized public health programs for sickle cell disease screening and management.

Longitudinal study assessing the return of chloroquine susceptibility of Plasmodiun falciparum isolates from travelers returning from West Africa

Background From the 1940s up to the 1990s, chloroquine (CQ) was the main malaria therapy worldwide. Following the CQ resistance burden in Africa, most African countries have discontinued CQ during the past 2 decades, and now promote artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), as the first-line treatment for uncomplicated malaria. The policy changed in West Africa during the last decade (2002 in Cameroon; 2003 in Senegal and Cote d’ lv oire; 2004 in Mali). The aim of this study is to describe the evolution of CQ resistance in West Africa, through travellers returning from this region. Methods The study was conducted by the Malaria National Reference Centre, France. The database collated in vitro response of reference and clinical isolates for CQ and the pfcrtK76 molecular marker for CQ susceptible Pf malaria from travellers returning from Cameroon, Senegal, Cote d’lvoire and Mali. As a proxy of drug pressure, CQ intake for children under five years of age with fever was extracted from the Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) for the study period [1,2]. Logistic regression models were used to detect trends in the susceptible isolates proportions. Results From 2000 to 2011, around 700 isolates were genotyped for each country. The frequency of the pfcrt76 wild-type significantly increased for Cameroon (CM) (from 10% to 41%, Slope=0.09, p<10-3), Cote d’lvoire (CI) (from 37% to 63%, Slope = 0.14, p<10-3), and Senegal (SN) (from 22% to 53%, Slope=0.17, p<10-3). The geometric mean of the 50% growth inhibition (IC50) of CQ decreased from 181 nM (95% confidence interval, 87-374) (25% CQ sensitive) to 51 nM (37-71) (63% CQ sensitive) in CM, from 75nM (43-130) (41% CQ sensitive) to 29nM (22-39) (84% CQ sensitive) in CI and from 86nM (51-145) (41% CQ sensitive) to 39nM (26-60) (75% CQ sensitive) in SN. Analyses performed from 2004 to 2011, when most of West African countries have officially discontinued CQ, confirmed previous results and also show a significant increase of the prevalence of pfcrt76 wild-type genotype for Mali (ML) (Slope = 0.07, p=0.02). Meanwhile, CQ use among children with fever significantly decreased during this period. Conclusions An increase of CQ susceptibility following official withdrawal is observed in travellers returning from Cameroon, Cote d’lvoire, Mali and Senegal. The length of time between policy changes and their subsequent implementation, as well as the cross resistance between antimalarial drugs, may affect the time for a significant recovery of CQ sensitivity. This information should be compared to country level CQ efficacy data.

Water, Climate, and Society

Water, for drinking, bathing, sanitation, agri culture, industry, and habitat preservation, is a necessity of life. Among the many ramifi cations of climate change, the form, content, and distribution of the earth's are changing in ways that fundamentally affect society and the environment. Social scientists in growing numbers are turning to problems of climate change and society: from drought, famine, and flooding to rising sea levels and wholesale migrations. There is no more nor less on the planet today than there was at the time of Noah's flood. The cycle assures that the molecule moves from solid to liquid to gas through transpiration, evaporation, and precipitation, but never increases. Seventy one percent of the earth's surface is ocean and the oceans contain ninety-seven percent of the world's water. With two percent stored in glaciers and ice caps, less than one percent of the world's remains in lakes, rivers, springs, and aquifers for potential human use (excluding prospective desalination, of which more below). That one percent suf ficed for the needs of most societies when the world's population stood at one or two or three billion but becomes exiguous as we reach seven billion in the next few years. The U. N. reports that half the world's population is without ready access to adequate for drinking and sanitation. And, of course, access is unequal internationally: per capita daily consumption for all uses is 12 gallons in Africa, 22 gallons in Asia, 88 gallons in the United Kingdom and 153 gallons in the United States. Yet growing scarcity is pre dicted for all regions of the world, a looming water according to the U.N. Archaeological evidence shows that soci eties have previously experienced drastic effects of climate change. Ancient cities and canal systems have gone to dust. Once fertile irrigation societies in Mesopotamia and Cen tral Arizona succumbed to growing accu mutations of salt and silt. The spectacular Chaco Canyon civilization in New Mexico abandoned its hub and satellite cities when the w t rs stopped flowing-a fate dupli cated in the great Mayan droughts. Today th Africa Sahel, a strip of land 4400 miles long and 500 miles wide from Sudan to Sene gal, has been migrating south bringing the Saharan climate to once habitable land. The Colorado plateau is presently experiencing a decade-lo g drought (2005 was exceptionally wet followed by a return to the driest months n record in early 2009) that threatens the delivery f and power from the Hoov r and Glen Canyon dams that sustain southern California, Phoenix, Las Vegas, and a h st of other s uthwestern communities. Will the cont mp ary crisis bring the kind of s cietal uin documented in the his toric record or will some combination of environmental policy and equitable resource allocation make it possible for all societies to live within nature's providence? That is the question underpinning the works reviewed here. Dead Pool, the main title of James Lawrence Po ell' compelling book, refers to the condit on in which Lake Mead or Lake Powell may fall to levels of the low st outlet works, meaning that the Hoov r and Gl n Canyon dams no longer produce hydroelec tric power and their storage reservoirs are Dead Pool: Lake Powell, Global Warming, and the Future of Water in the West, by James Lawrence Powell. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2008. 283pp. $27.50 cloth. ISBN: 9780520254770.

The Effect of Phosphate Rocks on Spring Barley Shoot Yield in a Pot Trial

Depending on their origin, sedimentary phosphate rocks (PRs) may differ in their P solubility, and, as a consequence, in their agronomic effectiveness. The effect of six phosphate rocks (PR) - originating from Algeria (ALG), North Florida (FLO), North Carolina (NCA), Senegal (SEN) Morocco (MOR) and Hyperphosphate (HYP) with various P solubility (evaluated by 2% formic acid, 2% citric acid, and neutral ammonium citrate) - as well as single superphosphate (SSP) and superphosphate + lime (SSP + Ca) (each P source on 4 P levels, with doses of 0, 100, 400 and 1600 mg P 2 O 5 ·kg -1 soil) on the shoot yield of tillering stage spring barley, soil available P (i.e. H 2 O, Olsen, Bray1, Lakanen-Erviö (LE) and ammonium lactate (AL) extractable P contents) were studied in pot experiments set up with acidic sandy soil (Nyírlugos, Hungary) and acidic clay loam soil (Ragály, Hungary), both with low P supplies. The average spring barley shoot yield at the beginning of shooting was 95% higher on the colloid-rich acidic (pH KCl : 4.5) clay loam soil than on the colloid-poor acidic (pH KCl : 3.8) sandy soil. The differences in the solubility of phosphate rocks showed close correlation to the differences in P responses. On both soils, the correlation between total PR-P added and P responses in spring barley shoot yield was much weaker than that between neutral ammonium citrate soluble PR-P added and P responses in spring barley shoot yield. When phosphate rocks were applied as P sources, the comparison of soil test P methods showed a different picture on the two soils. In the case of the acidic sandy soil (Nyírlugos), the strongly acid LE-P (r² = 0.83) and AL-P (r² =0.74) tests gave the highest correlation coefficients with spring barley responses to P, while on the acidic clay loam soil (Ragály) these were achieved by the Olsen-P (r² = 0.88) and Bray1-P (r² =0.88) methods.

ßS-Haplotypes in sickle cell anemia patients from Salvador, Bahia, Northeastern Brazil

BetaS-Globin haplotypes were studied in 80 (160 betaS chromosomes) sickle cell disease patients from Salvador, Brazil, a city with a large population of African origin resulting from the slave trade from Western Africa, mainly from the Bay of Benin. Hematological and hemoglobin analyses were carried out by standard methods. The betaS-haplotypes were determined by PCR and dot-blot techniques. A total of 77 (48.1%) chromosomes were characterized as Central African Republic (CAR) haplotype, 73 (45.6%) as Benin (BEN), 1 (0.63%) as Senegal (SEN), and 9 (5.63%) as atypical (Atp). Genotype was CAR/CAR in 17 (21.3%) patients, BEN/BEN in 17 (21.3%), CAR/BEN in 37 (46.3%), BEN/SEN in 1 (1.25%), BEN/Atp in 1 (1.25%), CAR/Atp in 6 (7.5%), and Atp/Atp in 1 (1.25%). Hemoglobin concentrations and hematocrit values did not differ among genotype groups but were significantly higher in 25 patients presenting percent fetal hemoglobin (%HbF) > or = 10% (P = 0.002 and 0.003, respectively). The median HbF concentration was 7.54+/-4.342% for the CAR/CAR genotype, 9.88 3.558% for the BEN/BEN genotype, 8.146 4.631% for the CAR/BEN genotype, and 4.180+/-2.250% for the CAR/Atp genotype (P = 0.02), although 1 CAR/CAR individual presented an HbF concentration as high as 15%. In view of the ethnic and geographical origin of this population, we did not expect a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for CAR/CAR and BEN/BEN homozygous haplotypes and a high proportion of heterozygous CAR/BEN haplotypes since the State of Bahia historically received more slaves from Western Africa than from Central Africa.

Globin haplotypes of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I-infected individuals in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, suggest a post-Columbian African origin of this virus.

The city of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, has sociodemographic characteristics similar to some African cities. Up to now, it has had the highest prevalence of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) infection (1.74%) in the country. To investigate which strains of HTLV-I are circulating in Salvador, we studied isolates from 82 patients infected with HTLV-I: 19 from the general population, 21 from pregnant women, 16 from intravenous drug users, and 26 from patients and their family attending a neurologic clinic. Phylogenetic analysis from part of the LTR fragments showed that most of these isolates belonged to the Transcontinental subgroup of the Cosmopolitan subtype (HTLV-Ia). Only one sample from a pregnant woman was closely related to the Japanese subgroup, suggesting recent introduction of a Japanese HTLV-I lineage into Salvador. betaA-Globin haplotypes were examined in 34 infected individuals and found to be atypical, confirming the racial heterogeneity of this population. A total of 20 chromosomes were characterized as Central African Republic (CAR) haplotype (29.4%), 31 (45.6%) were characterized as Benin (BEN) haplotype, and 17 (25%) were characterized as Senegal (SEN) haplotype. Five patients' genotypes (14.7%) were CAR/CAR; 10 (29,4%), BEN/BEN; 9 (26.5%), CAR/BEN; 2 (5.9%), BEN/SEN; and 7 (20.6%), SEN/SEN. One patient's genotype (2.9%) was CAR/SEN. The betaA-globin haplotype distribution in Salvador is unusual compared with other Brazilian states. Our data support the hypothesis of multiple post-Columbian introductions of African HTLV-Ia strains in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.