Semiarid Loess Plateau Region Research Articles

Optimizing the nitrogen application rate and planting density to improve dry matter yield, water productivity and N-use efficiency of forage maize in a rainfed region

Appropriate nitrogen (N) fertilization and planting density management are critical for efficient production of grain maize (Zea mays L.) and for environmental protection. However, the optimal N fertilization and planting density is still not established for forage maize that is cultivated to promote its vegetative growth and utilized for the above-ground vegetative mass. A two-year field experiment was conducted in the rainfed semiarid region of the Chinese Loess Plateau during the 2021 and 2022 growing seasons. The effects of N application rates and planting densities on the dry matter yields and the water- and N-use efficiencies of forage maize were studied. The experiment includes four N application rates (0, 90, 180, and 270 kg ha−1) and three plant densities (70000, 90000, and 110000 plants ha−1), covering the conventional practices of local farmers. The treatments were organized in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Averaged over the three plant densities, N application rate of 180 kg ha−1 resulted in the maximum average aboveground dry matter yield (18.6 t ha−1), crop N accumulation (228.5 kg ha−1), dry matter water productivity (51.9 kg ha−1 mm−1), and dry matter precipitation productivity (62.9 kg ha−1 mm−1) over the two years. Moreover, increasing N application rates significantly increased the soil nitrate-N accumulation (0–200 cm) but reduced the partial factor productivity of applied N fertilizer. Across the three plant densities, the two-year average soil nitrate-N accumulation was 12.6, 32.1, and 75.7 % higher with 90, 180, and 270 kg N ha−1 compared to no N treatment, respectively. The highest soil nitrate accumulation under 270 kg ha−1 N application rate in 2021 (229.5 kg ha−1) and in 2022 (329.7 kg ha−1) may cause severe nitrate leaching loss and potential soil water contamination, driven by intensive rainfalls. Averaged over the four N rates, planting density of 110000 plants ha−1 increased the crop N accumulation and PFP by 21.2 % and 15.8 % in 2021, compared to 70000 plants ha−1, respectively. The interaction of N application and planting density significantly affected the aboveground dry matter yield, crop water consumption, dry matter precipitation productivity, and crop N accumulation in 2021, but the effect was non-significant in 2022. Based on these findings, application of 180 kg N ha−1 and planting density of 110000 plants ha−1 are suggested as an efficient management strategy for improving productivity of forage maize and soil water and N resources utilization in the arid region of the Loess Plateau and similar areas.

Response of soil moisture to rainfall following deep soil drying in China's hilly loess lands

Deep soil drying is a physical soil phenomenon that has become increasingly characteristic to artificial afforestation on China's Loess Plateau. Current research is largely short of conclusive reports on soil moisture recovery following deep soil drying in afforested lands. In this study, a 10-m deep underground column was constructed at Pengyang Experimental Station in Ningxia. The CS650-CR1000 automatic soil moisture monitoring system and BLJW-4 small meteorological observation stations were used to respectively monitor soil moisture and meteorological conditions in the study area for the period 2014–2019. The local rainfall was classified and the characteristics of soil infiltration analyzed at both monthly and annual scales. The results showed that: i) Deep soil moisture recovery in the semi-arid Loess Plateau region depended mainly on 25–49.9 mm and >50 mm types of rainfall; together accounting for 35.44 % of the precipitation. ii) Deep soil moisture replenishment occurred mainly for the period from April to October. While this accounted for 30.13 % of the precipitation, evaporation loss accounted for 69.87 % of it. With increasing monthly rainfall (Pm), the variation in monthly infiltration depth (Zm) was quadratic in shape — where Zm = −0.0094 Pm2 + 3.7702 Pm (R2 = 0.9577). iii) At the annual scale, deep soil moisture replenishment was mainly driven by year-on-year infiltration water accumulation. This is because a single year precipitation infiltration was not enough to replenish deep soil moisture. The cumulative infiltration depth for 2014–2019 was 180, 260, 400, 700, 1000 > 1000 cm. It suggested that soil water infiltration and deep dry soil recovery occurred at different times under rainfed conditions in the semi-arid loess hills in China. This is key for in-depth studies of the hydrological process in dry soil regions.

Increasing effect of biocrusts on evaporation is evidenced by simulating evaporation and diffusion experiments and water stable isotope analysis

Evaporation, one of the main components of the water and energy balance between soil and atmosphere, plays a key role in hydrological processes particularly in semi-arid and arid climate regions. As critical living organism communities inhabiting the soil-atmosphere boundary, biocrusts are capable of modifying near-surface soil properties and structure in drylands. However, the roles of biocrusts in mediating soil evaporation still remain greatly controversial, and the literature yet lacks in a systematic assessment. In this study, evaporation experiments were conducted under simulated isothermal and non-isothermal conditions for bare soil and three types of biocrusts (cyanobacterial, moss, and their mixture) sampled from a semi-arid climate region of the Chinese Loess Plateau. During the evaporation, soil temperature and moisture were measured at depths 2, 5, 10, and 15 cm for those biocrusts and bare soil. Their water vapor diffusion process and stable isotopic composition were also analyzed in the laboratory. We found that the measured evaporation yielded 4.9%, 17.5%, and 31.6% higher average evaporation rate for cyanobacterial, cyano-moss, and moss crusts, respectively, when compared to the bare soil. In comparison to bare soil, all types of biocrusts markedly reduced the rate of temperature rise, prolonged the duration of wetting time, and delayed the formation of dry surface layer. The largest regulating effects on soil temperature and moisture were found in the moss crusts instead of cyanobacterial or cyano-moss crusts. The increasing evaporation in biocrusts was attributed to their higher fine particle content, lower bulk density, and greater water holding capacity. Moreover, the water vapor diffusion rate and diffusivity of biocrusts were 18.2% and 16.4% higher than those of bare soil, respectively, which is attributable to the increased total porosity and better soil structure. Additionally, the isotopic composition of soil water (0–50 cm) in bare soil and moss crusts was distributed below the local meteoric water line. The mean δ18O and δ2H in soil water gradually decreased with increasing soil depth, and the moss crusts were more isotopically enriched than bare soil. Based on the enhanced soil evaporation rate, improved vapor diffusivity, and enriched isotopic composition of biocrusts in contrast to bare soil, we conclude that biocrusts exacerbate vapor transport and evaporative loss, and consequently they are crucial surface cover in rebalancing surface ecohydrological and biochemical processes in global drylands. These findings improve our understanding of the complexity of dryland hydrology, and a full consideration should be given in future biocrust studies.

Deep plowing increases soil water storage and wheat yield in a semiarid region of Loess Plateau in China: A simulation study

ContextRational tillage practice is critical for increasing soil water storage capacity and improving crop production in semiarid areas with uneven rainfall distribution. ObjectiveThe aims of this study are to examine the effects of fallow tillage practice on wheat yield, soil water storage and water use efficiency, to investigate the appropriateness of different tillage practices under varying precipitation conditions, and to identify key factors contributing to yield variations among these practices. MethodsHere we compared the effects of different tillage practices (deep plowing, DP; subsoiling tillage, ST; and shallow rotary tillage, RT) on soil water storage and winter wheat yield in a semiarid region of the Loess Plateau in China, using field experimental data from 2009 to 2014 and APSIM (Agriculture Production System sIMulator) simulation results from 1980–2018. ResultsThe APSIM well simulated the soil water storage (0–200 cm), phenology, biomass and yield of winter wheat, with R2 > 0.65 and 0.71 for each variable in calibration years and validation years, and nRMSE <16.9 % and 22.1 %, respectively, indicating a good correlation and medium consistency between simulated and measured values. The simulated average annual soil water storage, biomass, yield, and water use efficiency under DP were 8.4 %, 18.4 %, 25.5 %, and 22.3 % higher than under RT, and 7.9 %, 13.8 %, 22.4 %, and 21.4 % higher than under ST, respectively. These variables did not differ between ST and RT treatments. Compared to RT, DP improved the soil water storage by 9.0 %–12.0 % from October to March, increased by 4.8 %–7.1 % during the fallow period, and increased by 2.5 %–7.4 % from April to June. This was mainly because DP had more precipitation reserves during the fallow period, but in the later stage of wheat growth, as precipitation increased, the difference in soil water storage between different tillage practices decreased. Wheat yield, precipitation and soil water storage were significantly and positively correlated. The difference in yield between DP and RT was greater at the medium than at low and high yield production levels, but that between ST and RT was not significant. ConclusionDP increased soil water storage from October to March and improved wheat yield, which should be recommended to ensure high wheat yield and efficient water use in the Loess Plateau. ImplicationsThis study validated the applicability of DP tillage in semi-arid areas on a long-term scale and found its superiority at different yield production levels.

Importance of forest stand structures for gross rainfall partitioning on China’s Loess Plateau

Large-scale ecological restoration in the arid and semi-arid Loess Plateau region of northern China is challenged by the intensifying water stress due to the changes in precipitation regimes. Although the importance of Gross Precipitation Partitioning (GRP) has been well recognized in forest hydrology, especially in dry areas, the processes are not understood because site- or region-specific factors complicate the accurate quantifications. This study integrates meta-analysis and field observation to compare patterns of GRP in forest stands that had different origins (plantations vs. native forests) and tree species (deciduous vs. evergreen) compositions. We aimed at quantifying the dominant biotic and abiotic factors controlling each of the GRP components to form empirical relationships between the GRP components and the influencing factors via the Boosted Regression Trees (BRT) model. We found a convergence in the GRP components among the examined stands that have diverse tree species and origins. Our results indicated that, unlike stem flow (SF) and canopy interception (Ic), the throughfall (TF) did not differ between natural and plantation stands. Meanwhile, from the perspective of species composition, the broadleaf forest stands had significantly higher SF rates than the coniferous stands. We found that stand structures exerted limited influence on TF, but significantly affected SF and Ic. We hypothesized that the residence time of the GRP components was important in explaining the matrix of influencing factors. The cumulative influences of stand structure factors played a more important role than species in most conditions. Based on the most influential factors (cumulative explanatory power > 70 %) selected from the BRT model, we successfully built a general formula to represent the GRP processes across the diverse forest stands in the Loess Plateau. Our study provides insights into the underlying mechanism of GRP for developing more realistic forest hydrological models. An improved understanding of GRP and better models are important for guiding large scale reforestation efforts that account for hydrological processes across stand species and origins.

Daily and seasonal patterns of stem diameter micro-variations in three semiarid forest species in relation to water status and environmental factors

Understanding the relationship between stem diameter micro-variation (SDMV) and stem water status and revealing the mechanism regulating stem water are essential for elucidating environmental adaptation and water use strategies in forest trees. Here, we report the results of the year-round monitoring (November 2018–October 2019) of SDMV and xylem sap flow obtained using high-resolution dendrometers and Granier-type thermal dissipation probes, respectively, in mature trees of three species in the semiarid Loess Plateau region: Quercus liaotungensis, Platycladus orientalis, and Robinia pseudoacacia. The year-round trend for the variations in stem diameter can be divided into phases of a decreasing period and a relatively stable period in the non-growing season, and a progressive rise and fluctuating plateau throughout the growing season. The observed interspecific differences in the time to full recovery from the water deficit state corresponded to species phenology and soil moisture conditions. These differences were manifested as the responses of sap flux density (Fd) and tree water deficit (TWD) to variations in soil water content during the growing season. Q. liaotungensis implements stomatal regulation early to avoid drastic water loss in the trunk, P. orientalis maintains a relatively stable Fd at the expense of increased TWD under soil drought, and R. pseudoacacia maintains relatively low stomatal conductance under soil drought with an increase in TWD. The results revealed that SDMV is determined by the stem water status and species-specific strategies for water use, which could provide beneficial information for forestation practices in semiarid regions.

Different transpiration and growth patterns of the black locust plantation and natural oak forest on China's Loess Plateau

AbstractRestoration of natural secondary forests and afforestation of introduced tree species are major effective measures for revegetation. The semiarid Loess Plateau region, characterised by fragile ecosystems and severe soil erosion, is a key area for ecological restoration and protection in China. To illustrate water use characteristics and adaptation to drought in the main forests in this area, we monitored the xylem sap flow of two typical adjacent forest communities with similar climatic characters, a secondary natural forest dominated by oak (Quercus liaotungensis) and a pure plantation of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), during 2011–2019 using Granier‐type thermal dissipation probes. Solar radiation (RS), air temperature, relative humidity (RH), precipitation and soil water content (SWC) were measured simultaneously. Throughout the whole study period, the mean diameter at breast height (DBH) and total sapwood area increased by 4.5 cm and 1.10 m2 ha−1, respectively in the oak forest and by 1.0 cm and 0.22 m2 ha−1, respectively in the black locust plantation. The monthly stand transpiration was jointly determined by phenological and meteorological factors. At the annual timescale, transpiration of the oak stand was significantly correlated with potential reference evapotranspiration (ET0) and rainfall in the previous year, whereas a significant positive relationship was detected between stand transpiration and SWC in the black locust stand. The analyses of differences between dry and wet years showed that the oak forest exhibited significantly different parameters in the regression analysis of stand transpiration to vapour pressure deficit (VPD), whereas only one parameter was clearly distinct in the black locust plantation, suggesting that its transpiration status did not fully recover even in wet years. The management of black locust plantations with weakened growth conditions should be adjusted under prolonged drought conditions. In contrast, oak forest can maintain the water balance and stable growth by efficiently controlling stomatal behaviour.

Towards the effects of moss-dominated biocrusts on surface soil aeration in drylands: Air permeability analysis and modeling

Soil aeration is an important factor influencing soil biological and biochemical processes because it directly affects soil microbial activity and respiration. As an important living skin of the soil, biocrusts strongly impact various soil properties and play a vital role in maintaining surface soil structure and multifunctionality. Although there are several studies concerning the effects of biocrusts on soil respiration processes, it is still not well understood how biocrusts affect air permeability (Ka) and soil aeration in drylands. In a semiarid climate region of the northern Chinese Loess Plateau, the Ka and air-filled porosity (εa) of moss-dominated biocrusts established on aeolian sand and loess soil were measured as a function of soil water content under laboratory and in situ conditions and compared to measurements of bare soils. The relative air permeability (Kra) of biocrusts and bare soils was further analyzed and estimated with commonly applied Kra models that are based on the soil water retention curve (SWRC), and the performance of these models was specifically assessed for biocrusts. The in situ measurements yielded a 51.8% and 76.7% higher Ka for the biocrust-colonized aeolian sand and loess soil, respectively, when compared to the bare soils. Correspondingly, in comparison to the bare soils, the εa of the biocrusts also increased by 38.0% for the aeolian sand and by 52.4% for the loess soil. The laboratory measurements showed an 8.5%–9.3% increase of Ka for the biocrust-colonized soils from wet to dry conditions when compared to their bare counterparts, which was mainly attributed to their higher fine particle and organic matter contents as well as to the moss rhizoids. Moreover, a positive linear relationship (R2 > 0.43) was found between the log Ka and log εa for both biocrusts and bare soils. Additionally, the biocrusts exhibited higher water content at almost all matric potentials in comparison to the bare soils. The Kra of biocrusts was 22.0% higher for aeolian sand and 42.1% higher for loess soil when compared to the bare soils. The van Genuchten-Burdine and Brooks and Corey-Burdine models performed best with regard to the estimation of Kra (RMSE ≤ 0.100, bias ≤ 0.018). In general, biocrusts may greatly increase surface soil aeration due to their higher Ka and εa, and the soil aeration status of biocrusts can be indirectly assessed through their effective degree of soil water saturation. Our findings suggest that biocrusts should be carefully considered in further studies of soil aeration related to biological processes and gas and vapor transport in dryland ecosystems.

Asymmetric responses of biocrust respiration to precipitation manipulation under a changing semiarid climate

Global climate change is expected to cause both increased and reduced precipitation in the next decades, especially in drylands with semi-arid climates. Biocrusts are an essential soil surface cover in global drylands, and they strongly influence most soil properties and support fundamental ecosystem functions, especially soil carbon (C) cycling. Nevertheless, the response patterns and mechanisms of biocrust respiration rate (Rs) to precipitation changes remain uncertain under changing semi-arid climates. In our study, a field experiment for biocrusts with natural precipitation (CK) and six levels of precipitation manipulation (–50 %, –30 %, –10 %, +10 %, +30 %, and +50 % of CK) were conducted from 2019 to 2021 in a semi-arid climate region of the northern Chinese Loess Plateau. We continuously measured the biocrust Rs of all the treatments in the growing seasons, and the fundamental properties of biocrusts and their temperature and water content at 5 cm depth were also measured. Our results showed that the increased precipitation inhibited biocrust Rs, while moderately reduced precipitation stimulated biocrust Rs. As compared with the CK, the precipitation manipulations of +10 %, +30 %, and +50 % decreased biocrust Rs by 8.9 %, 15.3 %, and 22.1 %, respectively, while the treatments of –10 % and –30 % increased biocrust Rs by 25.5 % and 8.0 %, respectively. However, the precipitation manipulation of –50 % suppressed biocrust Rs by 19.3 %. More importantly, the responses of biocrust Rs to precipitation changes were negative and asymmetric, which indicated a higher sensitivity of biocrust Rs to reduced precipitation in comparison to increased precipitation. Moreover, the increased precipitation (+10 % to + 50 %) raised soil water content (by 29.7 %–55.0 %), moss biomass (by 12.5 %–50.0 %), and organic matter content (by 11.3 %–12.4 %). In contrast, the reduced precipitation (–10 % to –30 %) decreased soil water content (by 5.2 %–17.6 %) and moss biomass (by 12.5 %–25.8 %). The structural equation modeling analysis showed that the responses of biocrust Rs to precipitation manipulation were mainly and directly influenced by soil temperature and biocrust properties. Although soil water content did not have a direct significant effect on biocrust Rs, it indirectly influenced biocrust Rs by affecting the fundamental properties of soil and biocrusts. Consequently, the changed soil properties and biocrust characteristics caused by precipitation shifts aggravated the negative responses of biocrust Rs to precipitation manipulation. Our findings emphasize that biocrusts have a negative and asymmetric response of Rs to precipitation changes, implying that the intensified precipitation variation in semi-arid regions caused by global climate change in future may positively affect the stability of soil C stocks contributed by biocrusts and thus reduce soil C efflux in drylands.

Characterization of dominant factors on evapotranspiration with seasonal soil water changes in two adjacent forests in the semiarid Loess Plateau

Evapotranspiration is an essential process of ecosystem water consumption and is controlled by meteorological factors and soil water conditions. In this study, evapotranspiration based on soil water budget was investigated with respect to major influencing factors during the growing seasons of 2012–2015 for two adjacent forest communities in the semiarid Loess Plateau region: a natural secondary forest dominated by oak (Quercus liaotungensis) and a plantation of exotic black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). Based on the combination of precipitation, soil water storage, and evapotranspiration dynamics, four distinct periods were differentiated to explore the evapotranspiration response to the main meteorological factors. The correlation matrixes showed that, in most investigated days, evapotranspiration was limited by soil water storage, while an increase in soil water storage shifted dominance from water-related to energy-related factors. The stepwise regression of ≥5-day dry events in each period had a better fitness when paired with the relationship between the summations of evapotranspiration and dominant factors (R2 > 0.7, p < 0.01 for all) than the stepwise results for daily averages. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was applied to validate the division and determine thresholds. All divisions were thoroughly validated, and the soil water storage thresholds of the black locust (120.2 mm and 150.7 mm) were higher than those of the oak (105.8 mm and 137.9 mm). Our results suggest that the oak had an adaptive water consumption strategy, while the black locust had a higher sensitivity to soil water insufficiency. The method for determining the threshold of soil water storage to separate the dominant factors of evapotranspiration was validated. The approach may be applied to other semiarid forest communities with distinct evapotranspiration response patterns.

Afforestation can lower microbial diversity and functionality in deep soil layers in a semiarid region.

Afforestation is an effective approach to rehabilitate degraded ecosystems, but often depletes deep soil moisture. Presently, it is not known how an afforestation-induced decrease in moisture affects soil microbial community and functionality, hindering our ability to understand the sustainability of the rehabilitated ecosystems. To address this issue, we examined the impacts of 20 years of afforestation on soil bacterial community, co-occurrence pattern, and functionalities along vertical profile (0-500 cm depth) in a semiarid region of China's Loess Plateau. We showed that the effects of afforestation with a deep-rooted legume tree on cropland were greater in deep than that of in top layers, resulting in decreased bacterial beta diversity, more responsive bacterial taxa and functional groups, increased homogeneous selection, and decreased network robustness in deep soils (120-500 cm). Organic carbon and nitrogen decomposition rates and multifunctionality also significantly decreased by afforestation, and microbial carbon limitation significantly increased in deep soils. Moreover, changes in microbial community and functionality in deep layer was largely related to changes in soil moisture. Such negative impacts on deep soils should be fully considered for assessing afforestation's eco-environment effects and for the sustainability of ecosystems because deep soils have important influence on forest ecosystems in semiarid and arid climates.

Regulation of Nitrogen Metabolism, Photosynthetic Activity, and Yield Attributes of Spring Wheat by Nitrogen Fertilizer in the Semi-arid Loess Plateau Region

Regulation of Nitrogen Metabolism, Photosynthetic Activity, and Yield Attributes of Spring Wheat by Nitrogen Fertilizer in the Semi-arid Loess Plateau Region

Estimation of Winter Wheat Yield in Arid and Semiarid Regions Based on Assimilated Multi-Source Sentinel Data and the CERES-Wheat Model.

The farmland area in arid and semiarid regions accounts for about 40% of the total area of farmland in the world, and it continues to increase. It is critical for global food security to predict the crop yield in arid and semiarid regions. To improve the prediction of crop yields in arid and semiarid regions, we explored data assimilation-crop modeling strategies for estimating the yield of winter wheat under different water stress conditions across different growing areas. We incorporated leaf area index (LAI) and soil moisture derived from multi-source Sentinel data with the CERES-Wheat model using ensemble Kalman filter data assimilation. According to different water stress conditions, different data assimilation strategies were applied to estimate winter wheat yields in arid and semiarid areas. Sentinel data provided LAI and soil moisture data with higher frequency (<14 d) and higher precision, with root mean square errors (RMSE) of 0.9955 m2 m−2 and 0.0305 cm3 cm−3, respectively, for data assimilation-crop modeling. The temporal continuity of the CERES-Wheat model and the spatial continuity of the remote sensing images obtained from the Sentinel data were integrated using the assimilation method. The RMSE of LAI and soil water obtained by the assimilation method were lower than those simulated by the CERES-Wheat model, which were reduced by 0.4458 m2 m−2 and 0.0244 cm3 cm−3, respectively. Assimilation of LAI independently estimated yield with high precision and efficiency in irrigated areas for winter wheat, with RMSE and absolute relative error (ARE) of 427.57 kg ha−1 and 6.07%, respectively. However, in rain-fed areas of winter wheat under water stress, assimilating both LAI and soil moisture achieved the highest accuracy in estimating yield (RMSE = 424.75 kg ha−1, ARE = 9.55%) by modifying the growth and development of the canopy simultaneously and by promoting soil water balance. Sentinel data can provide high temporal and spatial resolution data for deriving LAI and soil moisture in the study area, thereby improving the estimation accuracy of the assimilation model at a regional scale. In the arid and semiarid region of the southeastern Loess Plateau, assimilation of LAI independently can obtain high-precision yield estimation of winter wheat in irrigated area, while it requires assimilating both LAI and soil moisture to achieve high-precision yield estimation in the rain-fed area.

Biocrusts enhance non-rainfall water deposition and alter its distribution in dryland soils

Non-rainfall water deposition is an important water resource, critical for the survival of dryland vegetation and soil biota and maintaining dryland water balance. As a “living skin”, biocrusts are attracting increasing attention due to their potentially positive impacts on non-rainfall water deposition. However, the magnitude and underlying mechanisms of biocrust regulation of non-rainfall water are still unclear. In this study, we investigated the non-rainfall water deposition and distribution through continuous weighing micro-lysimeters (0–3, 3–6, and 6–10 cm depths) with bare soil and three types of biocrusts (cyanobacterial crusts, cyanobacterial-moss mixed crusts, and moss crusts) in a semiarid region of the Chinese Loess Plateau. Our results showed that the biocrusts were associated with significantly greater non-rainfall water deposition capacity (~13%–22%) in contrast to the bare soil, and biocrust type strongly influenced the daily non-rainfall water amount in the order: moss crusts > mixed crusts > cyanobacterial crusts > bare soil. Biocrusts were also associated with faster rates of non-rainfall water formation (42%; F ≥ 2.87, P ≤ 0.04), which may be linked to faster nighttime cooling in comparison to the bare soil. Atmospheric vapor condensation was the primary water source for non-rainfall water deposition at the 0–10 cm depth, as opposed to soil vapor condensation. Biocrusts had higher condensation from both sources, and had relatively more deposition from the atmosphere: atmospheric vapor condensation was greater by 114%-143% and soil vapor condensation was greater by 20%–30%. Moreover, >69% of the total non-rainfall water amount occurred in the top 3 cm of soil. The strong biocrust influence in the uppermost centimeters (F = 45.34, P < 0.001) appears to primarily drive the contrasts in non-rainfall water deposition in soils. Furthermore, all of the apparent effects of biocrusts on non-rainfall water deposition and distribution were reasonably attributed to the biocrust influences on soil physicochemical properties, especially the contents of fine particles, organic matter, high soil roughness, daily temperature difference, and moss morphology. In conclusion, biocrusts are associated with much greater non-rainfall water deposition capacity, and change non-rainfall water distribution along with soil depth, implying that they play a critical role in surface soil water balance of dryland ecosystems.

Effects of soil nutrients and stand structure on aboveground net primary productivity of oak secondary forests in the forest–steppe transition zone of Loess Plateau, China

Liaodong oak (Quercus liaotungensis Koidz.) dominated forests contribute to the few natural forest ecosystems in the semiarid Loess Plateau region in China. This study investigated the influence of soil nutrients and stand structure on aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) in the oak communities. We aimed to understand the major factors and their possible pathways that determine the ecosystem productivity. The biomass and the ANPP were estimated using plot surveys and litterfall collection in fixed plots. Linear regressions and structural equation models were used to evaluate the relationships among soil nutrients, stand structure (including vertical and horizontal structure), and ANPP. The results showed that the effect sizes of soil nutrients on ANPP and leaf production were near 60% and 70%, respectively. More than 70% of the variation in woody production was explained by stand structure, while litterfall production was largely dependent on stand vertical structure with effect size of 64%. The effect of soil nutrients on stand structural indices was detected only in the case of the vertical structure. The results suggested that soil nutrients could affect forest productivity both directly and indirectly in coordination with stand vertical structure, and that the effect of stand structure was limited in these communities.

Fine root distribution and morphological characteristics of switchgrass under different row spacings on semi-arid Loess Plateau, China

ABSTRACT To change row spacing is a common agricultural practice to adjust plant density to enhance plant growth and development. Here we examined the fine root (≤1.0 mm in diameter) distribution and morphological characteristics of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) in the 7th growth year under three row spacing settings (20 cm, 40 cm and 60 cm) on a terrace field in the semi-arid Loess Plateau region. Roots from 0 to 150 cm soil layers were utilized to evaluate the root biomass, distribution and morphological traits in April and October 2016. Results showed that fine root biomass (FRB) mainly distributed in the 0–40 cm soil layer, and it was higher under the 20 cm and 40 cm than that under the 60 cm row spacing treatment. FRB in October was lower than in April under all three row spacings. Compared with 20 cm and 60 cm row spacing, root surface area, root length density and specific root length under 40 cm row spacing were higher, while root diameter was smaller. These conferred switchgrass with larger soil exploration and root-soil interface. It implied that switchgrass grown under 40 cm row spacing had stronger ability on exploiting soil resources in the semi-arid area.

Long-Term Nitrogen Fertilization Impacts on Soil Bacteria, Grain Yield and Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Wheat in Semiarid Loess Plateau, China

Soil bacteria are key components of the soil microbial community contributing to soil health. Nitrogen (N) fertilization is an important factor that affects soil microbial community and cereal production. This study aims to explore the impact of long-term N fertilization on soil bacterial diversity, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), and the grain yield of wheat in the semiarid region of Loess Plateau, China. The field experiment was conducted from 2003 to 2018 including five N treatments: 0 (N0), 52.5 (N52.5), 105 (N105), 157.5 (N157.5), and 210 (N210) kg N ha−1 yr−1. The soil pH was decreased by the N fertilization, while the soil ammonium, nitrate, and available phosphorus were increased. The N uptake and grain yield of wheat were significantly increased with N and the highest NUE (28%) and grain yield (44% higher than control) were observed at 105 kg N ha−1, but no significant increase in yield was observed by further increasing N rate. The bacterial diversity was significantly increased at N105. Soil bacteria community was strongly related to soil chemical properties and ammonium content was the most important contributor. The dominant soil bacterial phyla were Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes, Bacteroidetes, Nitrospirae, Verrucomicrobia, and Planctomycetes. The higher grain yield of wheat was related to the higher class Gammaproteobacteria and Sphingobacteriia abundance, and lower class Acidobacteria and Chloroflexia abundance. In summary, 105 kg ha−1 yr−1 was the optimum rate of N for diversified soil bacterial community and wheat yield for sustainable wheat production in semiarid Loess Plateau of China, whose higher N use efficiency was attributed to the higher phyla Verrucomicrobia and Planctomycetes, and lower Proteobacteria abundance.

Comparative modeling of the effect of thinning on canopy interception loss in a semiarid black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) plantation in Northwest China

Canopy interception loss is a key component of forest hydrological cycle that determine the amount of net rainfall reaching forest floor together with drought/climate stressors affecting dryland forest plantations. A good understanding of the relationship between canopy interception loss and forest management such as thinning is important for improved watershed management and ecological services. In this study, we measured event-based rainfall partitioning for a thinned (TH, with 38% basal area removed) and a control (CT) Robinia pseudoacacia forest plantation during leafed and leafless seasons in 2015 in the semiarid Loess Plateau region in China. Interception loss from both forest plots were simulated using the Revised Gash Analytical Model (RGAM) and the WiMo model. The results showed that observed annual throughfall, stemflow and interception loss were respectively 80.8%, 1.7% and 17.5% of the gross rainfall under CT. The corresponding values under TH were 87.9%, 0.8% and 11.3%, respectively. The RGAM and WiMo models were well calibrated and validated using filed data collected in leafed and leafless seasons. The analyses suggested that models accurately predicated interception loss under both CT and TH conditions and captured seasonal variations in canopy and meteorological parameters. The RGAM model was most sensitive to the ratio of mean evaporation rate to mean rainfall intensity, and canopy storage capacity in leafed season, and to the ratio of mean evaporation rate to mean rainfall intensity in leafless season. Moreover, 37.2% and 42.1% of the interception in leafed season evaporated from the canopy respectively during rainfall event and after rainfall. The corresponding values for leafless season were respectively 49.3% and 22.4%. Overall, the performance of the optimized RGAM and WiMo models were satisfactory with respect to modeling error (−6.9 − −2.9%) and Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency (0.80–0.94), although that of the optimized RGAM model was slightly superior to WiMo model. The models would facilitate the implementation of water-oriented management in semiarid forest plantations through a more accurate simulation of the impact of thinning on interception loss.

Sap flow characteristics in growing and non-growing seasons in three tree species in the semiarid Loess Plateau region of China

Year-round observation suggests that sap flow in growing season represents species-specific transpiration characteristics and sap flow of deciduous broadleaved species in non-growing season is related to daily changes in stem diameter. Year-round observation is necessary to investigate species-specific characteristics of sap flow and its possible contribution in non-growing season. The middle Loess Plateau in China is characterized by temperate climate and vegetation cover of generally drought-tolerant deciduous broadleaved and some evergreen coniferous trees. In this study, Granier-type thermal dissipation probes were applied to measure year-round xylem sap flow in three species from April 2017 to April 2018. Solar radiation, air temperature, relative air humidity, precipitation, and soil moisture were monitored continuously. The results showed that the peak time of sap flux density (Fd) in the diurnal courses of Robinia pseudoacacia was later than that of Quercus liaotungensis and Platycladus orientalis. The peak time of Fd for R. pseudoacacia was significantly postponed during the period with higher soil moisture when compared with that at lower soil moisture, whereas the peak time was reached slightly earlier in the other two species. Sap flow during the non-growing season was relatively higher in P. orientalis than in the two broadleaved species. The diurnal course of Fd in non-growing season showed high values at nighttime and low values in daytime, opposite to that in growing season. Daily variation in stem diameter was inverse of the change in sap flow in the two broadleaved species, whereas the daily change in stem diameter of P. orientalis was very small and showed no clear relation with sap flow. The results suggest that changes in transpiration characteristics with soil moisture conditions vary with tree species; sap flow in deciduous broadleaved trees in non-growing season is small and closely related to daily changes in stem diameter.

Characteristics of soil microbial and nematode communities under artificial Medicago sativa grasslands with different cultivation years in semi-arid region of Loess Plateau, Northwest China

The establishment of Medicago sativa artificial grasslands is an important practice of grassland vegetation restoration in the Loess Plateau. Understanding community characteristics of soil microbes and nematodes can provide important information for evaluating and controlling ecolo-gical and environmental effects of vegetation restoration. In this study, we used M. sativa artificial grasslands with four different cultivation years (1, 2, 6 and 12 years) in southern Ningxia mountainous region, with a farmland and a natural grassland as control, to explore changing trends of the two biological communities during artificial grassland restoration in semi-arid region of the Loess Plateau. The results showed that: 1) After the conversion of farmland to M. sativa grassland, Chao1, ACE and Shannon diversity indices of soil bacterial community increased firstly and then decreased, which reached the maximum after six years of M. sativa grassland establishment. For soil fungal community, Shannon diversity index was lower in 6 and 12 year-old M. sativa grasslands than in the other two artificial grasslands, and the community composition differed across restoration years. 2) With the increases of restoration years, the abundance of soil nematodes showed a similar changing trend with Shannon diversity index of bacterial community. The composition of nematode community did not greatly differ between the 6-year-old M. sativa grassland and farmland, while that in 12-year-old artificial grassland was more similar to that in natural grassland. The proportion of bacterivorous and plant-feeding nematodes, as well as plant parasitic index and nematode channel index of nematode community,were increased, while the proportion of fungivores and omnivores-predators and maturity index were decreased. 3) During the restoration, changes in soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and available phosphorus greatly affected soil microbial community, which could further influence soil nematode community. There were significant correlations between dominant microbial phyla and trophic groups of soil nematodes, implying the possible effects of soil microbes on nematode community. In M. sativa artificial grassland with different establishment years, changes in plant biomass and diversity might significantly affect soil nematode and microbial communities through affecting their food conditions.