Semi-Automated Forces Research Articles

Estimating the tactical impact of robot swarms using a semi-automated forces system and design of experiments methods

Militaries are developing autonomous robots to conduct missions such as reconnaissance and surveillance. Some of those robots are intended to operate in swarms. Because operational robot swarms are not yet available, doctrine developers will initially use constructive entity-level combat models to develop and test tactics for robot swarms. Design of experiments methods and retrodiction of the 1991 Battle of 73 Easting between US and Iraqi forces were used to calibrate a semi-automated forces system. The calibrated combat model was then used to estimate the tactical impact of a notional Iraqi robot swarm conducting reconnaissance and surveillance in that battle. The calibration ensured that the model’s parameters were accurate, enabling a reliable estimate of the swarm’s tactical impact. Additionally, the design of experiments methods produced estimates of the interaction of the robot swarm’s effect with the technologies of the combatants’ weapon systems. Simulation trials and statistical analysis showed that the tactical benefits of an Iraqi robot swarm were overshadowed by the advantage provided by the US forces’ thermal sights. However, additional trials indicated that if both sides had been equipped with optical sights only, the early warning provided to the Iraqi forces by a robot swarm could have had a significant effect on the battle’s outcome.

Domain-oriented variability modeling for reuse of simulation models

Reusability is an important quality attribute for defense modeling and simulation (MS) due to the ever-changing combat simulations and new requirements. There has been research conducted worldwide for reusing simulation models. The methods proposed in these studies (including One Semi-Automated Forces (OneSAF)) support reuse of simulation components in the development of new models. As the reuse units in the existing methods are at the simulation component level, when existing components do not satisfy new simulation requirements, new components have to be developed and maintained separately from the existing ones. However, simulation components in the same domain tend to have common parts; behavior models for tactical missions and battlefield functions in the same domain are derived from the same tactical doctrine/manual, and thus they tend to have a common structure. There is a need for a new method to maximize reusability by providing “fine-grained” reuse, i.e. composing simulation components from reusable fine-grained modules (i.e. behaviors/functions). We address the problem by applying the product line engineering concept to the development of simulation components. Commonalities and variabilities (CVs) of domain-specific simulation requirements and CVs of tactical behaviors and battlefield functions are identified in domain-oriented variability modeling. Then, the CVs are used to design and implement domain-specific simulation component assets with domain-specific tactical behaviors and battlefield functions while embedding the identified variabilities. These domain-specific component assets are instantiated based on selections of variabilities and then integrated to develop a simulation model. Feasibility of the method was demonstrated in an infantry squad combat domain of the Republic of Korea armed forces.

Transparent optimistic synchronization in the high-level architecture via time-management conversion

Distributed simulation allows the treatment of large/complex models by having several interacting simulators running concurrently, each one in charge of a portion of the model. In order to effectively manage integration and interoperability aspects, the standard known as High Level Architecture (HLA) has been developed, which is based on a middleware component known as Run-Time-Infrastructure (RTI). One of the main issues faced by such a standard is synchronization, so that HLA supports both conservative and optimistic approaches. However, technical issues, combined with some peculiarities of the optimistic approach, force most simulators to use the conservative approach. In order to tackle these issues, we present the design and implementation of a Time Management Converter (TiMaC) for HLA based simulation systems. TiMaC is a state machine designed to be transparently interposed between the application layer and the underlying RTI, which performs mapping of the conservative HLA synchronization interface onto the optimistic one. Such a mapping allows transparent optimistic execution (and the related benefits) for simulators originally designed to rely on conservative synchronization. This is achieved without the need to modify the RTI services or alter the HLA standard. An experimental evaluation demonstrating the viability and effectiveness of our proposal is also reported, by integrating our TiMaC implementation with the Georgia Tech B-RTI package and running on it both (A) benchmarks relying on traces from simulated demonstration exercises collected using the Joint Semi-Automated Forces (JSAF) simulation program and (B) a self-federated Personal Communication System simulation application.

On the nature and logics of innovation capabilities within knowledge-intensive environments: a case study

In this article, we argue that the concept of innovation capability has not been fully explored. In this way, we address the following research question: what are the nature and logics of the capabilities required to develop innovations within knowledge-intensive sectors? To study the addressed question, we develop a single case study and analyse its major implications for innovation management. Our case study focuses on the One Semi-Automated Forces (OneSAF) Objective System (OOS), a modelling and simulation technology to be used as a training and education system by the U.S. Army and parent services (Parsons and Wittman, 2005). By seeking to economise on resources dedicated to training and education technology, the U.S. Department of Defence have adopted a new strategy for software development, maintenance, updating and renewing (Herz, Lucas and Scott, 2006). Whether this new strategy becomes effective shall depend on the ability of the participants (e.g., user communities, military services, prime contractors, universities) to hold and develop appropriate capabilities.JEL Codes: O30, O31, O32, O39

Visualization and rule validation in human-behavior representation

Human behavior representation (HBR) models simulate human behaviors and responses. The Joint Crowd Federate TM cognitive model developed by the Virginia Modeling, Analysis, and Simulation Center (VMASC) and licensed by WernerAnderson, Inc., models the cognitive behavior of crowds to provide credible crowd behavior in support of military training, exercise support, and wargaming experiments and can be federated with semi-automated forces (SAF) simulations. Other possible uses include training support to emergency management and security personnel. The large parameter spaces and behavior complexities associated with HBR can make validating these simulations difficult, but with a multipronged approach, it is not impossible. A comprehensive approach investigates not only the results of the simulation but also the mathematical instantiation in the conceptual model. This article demonstrates a technique developed to understand the mathematical instantiation of the parameter space embodied by our HBR model and the effects of different parameterizations on the model's initialization space.

Using Graphics Processor Units to Accelerate OneSAF: A Case Study in Technology Transition

Ongoing research aims to accelerate the runtime processing speed of the One Semi-Automated Forces (OneSAF) Computer Generated Forces (CGF) simulation by converting and migrating some of the core algorithms from the host central processing unit (CPU) to an onboard auxiliary graphics processor unit (GPU). In this research the GPU chip is regarded as a surrogate stream processor, and appropriate algorithms are designed to map to the GPU architecture. Processing speed gains are realized both through computational capabilities of the GPU as well as through offloading of the host CPU. Technology transfer of this research into the OneSAF baseline is a key requirement of this research. The OneSAF development program focuses on the same issues of scalability and runtime performance that will be directly affected by use of GPUs. As program architects are marshalling conventional approaches for resolving these challenges, the introduction of GPU-based solutions is being realized. This paper examines the challenges, planned approaches, and benchmarked results for using GPUs to accelerate OneSAF simulation.

PDU Bundling and Replication for Reduction of Distributed Simulation Communication Traffic

Communication bandwidth and latency reduction techniques are developed for Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocols. DIS Protocol Data Unit (PDU) packets are bundled together prior to transmission based on PDU type, internal structure, and content over a sliding window of up to C adjacent transmission requests, for 1 < C < 64. At the receiving nodes, the packets are replicated as necessary to reconstruct the original packet stream. Bundling strategies including Always-Wait, Always-Send, Type-Only prediction, Type-Length prediction, and Type-Length-Time prediction are developed and then evaluated using both heuristic parameters and a gradient descent back-propagation neural network. Several communication case studies from the One Semi-Automated Forces (OneSAF) Testbed Baseline (OTB) are assessed for multiple-platoon, company, and battalion-scale force-on-force vignettes consistent with Future Combat Systems (FCS) Operations and Organizations (O&O) scenarios. Traffic is modeled using the OMNeT++ discrete-event simulator models and scripts developed for a hierarchical communication architecture consisting of eight en route C-17 aircraft, each carrying three Ethernet-connected M1A2 ground vehicles, a wireless flying LAN based on Joint Forces Command's Joint En route Mission Planning and Rehearsal System (JEMPRS) for Near-Term (JEMPRS-NT) and follow-on bandwidth capacities. The simulation traffic includes Opposing Force (OPFOR) control through a CONUS-based ground station via its corresponding satellite links. Different bandwidth capacities are simulated and analyzed for PDU travel time and slack time, router and satellite queue length, and number of packet collisions are assessed at 64 Kbps, 256 Kbps, 512 Kbps, and 1 Mbps capacities. Results indicate that a Type-Length prediction strategy is capable of improving travel time up to 85%, slack time up to 97%, and queue length up to 98% on bandwidth restricted channels of 64 Kbps.

UTSAF: Getting The Best of Consumer Graphics into Military Simulations

Rapid advances in consumer electronics have led to the anomaly that consumer gaming hardware and software now provide better interactive three-dimensional graphics than military and other specialized systems costing orders of magnitude more. UTSAF is bridging software written to take advantage of the power of modern gaming systems by allowing them to participate in distributed simulations with military simulators such as the Modular Semi-Automated Forces (ModSAF). UTSAF parses the ModSAF network protocol and uses the information gained to control entities within the Unreal Tournament video game, using the Gamebots modification. This paper describes the advantages of game-based simulation, and the UTSAF bridging and control architecture.

A large-scale metacomputing framework for the ModSAF real-time simulation

A distributed, parallel implementation of the widely-used Modular Semi-Automated Forces (ModSAF) Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) is presented, with Scalable Parallel Processors (SPPs) used to simulate more than 50,000 individual vehicles. The single-SPP version is described and shown to be scalable. This code is portable and has been run on a variety of different SPP architectures. Results for simulations with up to 15,000 vehicles are presented for a number of distinct SPP architectures. The initial multi-SPP (metacomputing) run used explicit Gateway communication processes to exchange data among several SPPs simulating separate portions of the full battle space. The 50K-vehicle simulations utilized 1904 processors on SPPs at six sites across seven time zones, including platforms from three computer manufacturers. (Four of the SPP sites in the large run used the single-SPP code described in this work, with a somewhat different single-SPP ModSAF implementation used at the other two sites.) Particular attention is given to analyses of inter-SPP data rates and Gateway performance in the multi-SPP runs. An alternative, next-generation implementation based on Globus is presented, including discussions of initial experiments, comparisons to the Gateway model, and planned near-term extensions. Finally, comparisons are made between this work and ongoing mainstream DIS activities.

A hybrid expert system for scheduling the U.S. Army's Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT)

In recent years, the United States Army has undertaken the development of a new type of computerized training facility called the Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT). This system will enable future armored and mechanized units at battalion and below to train in virtual environments on a digitized battlefield. The major tasks for planning a days' training include the following. First, personnel from the unit undergoing training select training scenarios to be conducted during each training day. Next, the training scenarios are scheduled throughout the planning horizon where multiple scenarios may be scheduled simultaneously. Finally, the type and quantity of training resources for conducting each training scenario are identified and scheduled. Resource quantities vary by training scenario type and may vary within a scenario type as well. CCTT training resources include simulator modules, computer workstations, workstation operators (people) and computer-generated, semi-automated forces (SAF). This paper discusses the development of a hybrid expert system prototype for scheduling training in the new CCTT facilities.

Future technology challenges in distributed interactive simulation

The paper examines the changes in computer and communications capabilities over the next 10-15 years which are most likely to affect the central components of distributed interactive simulation (DIS): manned simulators, synthetic environments, and semi-automated forces (SAF). Because these components of DIS are currently very resource intensive, improvements in computer and communications capabilities translate into direct and immediate improvements in DIS capabilities. These improved capabilities in turn allow DIS to contribute in much broader arenas, enhancing troop readiness and reducing system acquisition costs. These improvements will not all come automatically, however. Substantial planning is required to ensure that DIS can take advantage of the coming changes, rather than being overcome by them.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Managing uncertainty in time-critical plan evaluation

In complex real-world domains, uncertainty in predicting the results of plan execution drives the evaluation component of the planning cycle to explore a combinatorial explosion of alternative futures. This evaluation component is critical in evaluating the feasibility, strengths and weaknesses of a proposed plan. In time critical situations the planner is thus faced with a trade-off between timeliness and evaluation completion. Furthermore, a human planner is faced with the additional problem of evaluation credibility when using fast automatic evaluation in a complex and uncertain domain. An approach to handling these problems of time-criticality, uncertainty, and credibility is explored using the wargaming component of the military operational planning cycle. The Semi-Automated Forces Wargamer has been developed using two techniques. The first technique integrates procedural representations of plans and intentions with heuristic representations of simulated probabilistic execution. This facilitates the simulated execution of plans with multiple worlds corresponding to the possible results of actions taken in the real and uncertain world. The second provides a what-if capability via a tree representation of the possible combat outcomes. This provides the user with a tool for intelligent and focussed exploration of the space of possible outcomes to the plan. These techniques combine to generate a manageable and useful subset of the space of simulated plan results from which the user can apply human expertize to guide plan exploration.