Semantic Formulas Research Articles

The Strategies of Invitation Speech Act in Turkish

This study examines the strategies on invitation speech act in Turkish based on the speech act theory in pragmatics which fundamentally positions that when people use language they actually perform a kind of action. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the strategies employed on invitation speech act by native speakers of Turkish. To accomplish the goal, an online Written Discourse Completion Task (DCT) was employed with an aim to delineate the strategies Turkish speakers use while inviting. Another method was examining several different Turkish television series. Following the implication of the quantitative technique of conversation analysis, the utterances in data from invitation acts were analyzed in terms of the patterns of the semantic formulas categorized in the taxonomy by Suzuki (2009). The findings of the study revealed that invitation acts used in Turkish have their unique patterns. Direct invitations (84.90%) were more frequent than indirect ones (15.09%). Moreover, the most predominant type of head act was declarative (40.33%) and query on hearer’s plan (17.64%) had the highest frequency among preparatory acts. The most common supportive move was description of event by 48.44% of Turkish invitations.

Request Strategies of EFL University Learners at Jambi University

Making appropriate requests is a crucial aspect of pragmatic competence in language learning. This research aimed to investigate common request strategies used by EFL University Learners at Jambi University when making requests at the ages of 19, 20, and 21. This research design was an intrinsic case study to gain an in-depth knowledge of the phenomenon within its specific context. Data were collected through a written discourse completion test (DCT) from six participants, two from each age group. They were analyzed using discourse analysis, specifically focusing on the request strategies proposed by Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984), Blum-Kulka (1987), and Trosborg (1995). The findings reveal that most participants employed conventionally indirect (hearer-based) strategies in the form of ability, willingness, and permission (25 times, 83.3% frequency of semantic formulas) and conventionally indirect request (speaker-based) strategies in the form of desires/needs (3 times, 10% frequency of semantic formulas), followed by direct request strategies in the form of performatives (2 times, 6.6% frequency of semantic formulas). The research concluded that conventionally indirect request strategies (hearer-based) in the form of ability, willingness, and permission are mostly used in making requests among the studied age groups. It also found that age influenced how social power as a social variable maintained smooth social interactions in making requests. Those different age groups exhibited diversities in the use of directness level in making requests based on the age gap between the speaker and the hearer. Additionally, the research indicates how the focus shifts to the hearer's wants as the speaker casts requests in various direct forms. This suggests that people tend to make requests subtly, especially within academic settings. These findings have important implications for language teaching and pragmatics instruction, potentially influencing approaches to improving learner awareness of appropriate request strategies in academic and social contexts.

Interlanguage Pragmatic Competence of University Students: An Error Analysis of Apology Speech Act Strategies in Japanese Learners

While acquiring a second language, learners may encounter challenges and difficulties in effectively carrying out verbal communication in the second language. Mastering the apology speech act is a challenge for L2 learners. The objective of this study is to identify the apology strategies utilized by individuals learning the Japanese language, as well as the specific types and underlying causes of errors produced during the execution of apologetic speech acts. The results of this study were gathered via the Discourse Completion Test (DCT), which encompassed a sample of 150 Japanese language learners. The gathered data were further classified using eight semantic formulas based on the research conducted by Haristiani and Sopiyanti (2019), while the various types and sources of error categorization were conducted based on the theories proposed by Corder (1981) and Richards (1975). The results of this study suggest that Japanese learners utilize the same primary strategies in apology speech acts. Furthermore, the study findings indicated that learners at the intermediate level displayed a higher frequency of errors in their speech compared to learners at the beginner levels and pre-intermediate levels, particularly in the strategy of taking responsibility. The main reason for this was primarily a lack of familiarity with the conventions of sentence structures, the proper use of language, and the appropriate use of expressions. The other sources of errors in language learning are likely to be ignoring language rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules, the learner’s false hypothesis, overgeneralization, and language transfer. This study is anticipated to function as a point of reference for research in interlanguage pragmatics, second-language acquisition, and error analysis. Gaining comprehension of the various problems and difficulties encountered when performing the speech act of apology in Japanese can assist both learners and educators in reducing these errors.

The Analysis of Adjunct to Refusal Expressions in a Refusal Discourse: A Contrastive Study between Japanese Native Speakers and Indonesian Japanese Learners

The study reports on the analysis of Adjunct to Refusal Expressions used by Japanese Native Speaker (JNS) and Indonesian Japanese Learners (IJL) in a refusal discourse. The aims are to see whether both use Adjunct to Refusal Expressions in a refusal interaction and to observe what type of expressions they use when refusing in the interaction, investigating the similarities and differences in their use from the first refusal stage to the stage where the intent of refusal is accepted by the refusee. The mixed method research involved 60 participants consisting of 30 pairs JNS female university students and 30 pairs of IJL female university students. The male students were not involved in this study due to the lack numbers of those learning Japanese language in the university. IJL students represented beginner and intermediate levels (N5, N4, and N3). The data were collected by situating the participants in a role play based on the setting given while being videotaped. The setting is a refusal to a close friend’s request. The data were analyzed by using a semantic formula framework, focusing on Adjunct to Refusal expressions modified from Beebe et al (1990), Yoshida (2015) and Hayati (2020, 2023). The results showed that both JNS and IJL employed Adjunct to Refusal expressions in their refusal discourse. There was no significant difference in the use of Adjunct to Refusal by JNS and IJL with χ2(1) = 1.270, p = .2597. However, JNS used higher Adjunct to Refusal expressions (46,7%) than IJL (33,3%). Further, their preferences in using certain type of Adjunct to Refusal expressions were similar in that they highly used information request type, whereas the differences could be seen from the absent use of confusion as Adjunct to refusal in JNS and that of backchannel response in IJL.

The Trend as a Semantic Formula and Its Use in the Visual Marketing of the Printing Designs of Casual Clothes.

The Trend as a Semantic Formula and Its Use in the Visual Marketing of the Printing Designs of Casual Clothes.

Advanced Chinese EFL Learners’ Performance on Request

This study aims to investigate the performance of advanced Chinese EFL learners in making requests in different situational contexts. Request, as a sub type of directives, refers to attempts made by a speaker to persuade or dissuade the hearer from performing some kind of action for the benefit of the speaker (Ellis, 2008). According to Brown and Levinson’s (1987) politeness theory, making a request is considered a face-threatening act since it involves imposing one’s will on the hearer. Consequently, indirect request strategies are generally preferred by speakers as they help mitigate any potential imposition on the hearer’s face. However, this is not always the case. Brown and Levinson (ibid.) argue that the specific semantic formula used by speakers depends on contextual factors such as power dynamics between speaker and hearer, social distance between them, and size of imposition involved. In other words, making requests requires language learners to consider various aspects including linguistic form, communicative function, and situational context; thus placing significant cognitive burden on them due to their limited working memory capacity. As a result, breakdowns in communication often occur when EFL learners attempt to make requests.

초등 예비교사들의 영어 화용에 대한 인식

This study investigates the extent of pragmatic awareness in English of primary
 pre-service teachers. It addresses two research questions. First, do Korean learners of
 English exhibit a marked discrepancy between grammatical awareness and pragmatic
 awareness? Second, if they are less aware of pragmatic violations than grammatical
 errors, how does this manifest in their speech act strategies? To answer the first
 question, a written survey on pragmatic awareness was carried out with Korean
 pre-service teachers (N = 28). To address the second question, an acceptability
 judgment task was conducted with another group of Korean pre-service teachers (N
 = 32) and English natives (N = 65). The results showed that Korean pre-service teachers
 were less aware of pragmatic violations than grammatical errors and that their speech
 act strategies deviated from those of English natives. Regarding apology speech acts,
 they tended to use more semantic formulas compared to English natives. Concerning
 request speech acts, they relied on politeness markers rather than the negative politeness
 strategies preferred by the English natives. Finally, the study offers some suggestions
 for enhancing their pragmatic competence.

The gentle craft of saying “No” in Persian and English: A cross-cultural and cross-linguistic slant

Refusals have proven to be problematic since they are the source of so many cross-cultural misunderstandings in that they are face threatening acts, which require that the speaker utilize redress, mitigation or politeness markers. The present study’s goal was to investigate the realization of the speech act of refusal in the Iranians and Americans contexts to identify the similarities and differences. It also explored the effect of social status on the choice of refusal strategies. Two well-known popular family drama film series were selected as the sources of the data. Totally, 455 refusal words, expressions, and utterances were collected from the two series. The collected data was coded using Beebe et al.’s (1990) taxonomy of refusal strategies. Descriptive statistics, Binomial, and Chi-square tests were used to analyze the data. The frequency of the refusal strategies and also the frequency of utilizing these strategies with respect to the interlocutors’ social status were analyzed. The results revealed no statistically significant differences between the two cultures with respect to the prevalence of refusal strategies, shift, and content of semantic formulae used in refusals. However, there were statistically significant differences in the frequency of the two major refusal categories, namely, Direct and Indirect strategies. Furthermore, concerning social status, the differences were statistically significant in the frequency of the refusal strategies utilized by the three social levels as regards the main categories in both cultures. The findings enhance intercultural understanding and provide valuable insights into the realization of refusals in different cultural contexts, the influence of social status, and the implications for intercultural communication. It highlights the significance of pragmatic issues and cultural awareness in promoting effective communication and mutual understanding across cultures, hence, ameliorates mutual cross-cultural communication and warrant teachers and material developers about the significance of pragmatic issues in developing the learners’ communicative competence.

Новые соционимы в интернет-коммуникации 2000-2022 гг.: функционально-семантические характеристики

The object of the study is the actual socionyms functioning in the Russian-language Internet communication in 2000-2022. They reflect identities, characteristics that become the basis for the delimitation of the social space of society. The analysis includes semantic, motivological, word-formation analysis of socionyms, characterization of their usage, including usage in semantic formulas correlated with the dictionary of identity / characterization dictionary, determination of the tendency of socionyms to contexts with a certain sentiment. At the same time, a significant (down to zero marks) decrease in the frequency of analyzed socionyms in Russian-language Internet communication should be noted since February 2022. It is shown that socionyms function in formulas of identifying (self) definition, optionally in formulas of identifying spatial, event-related community. The described units refer mainly to the characterization dictionary, reflecting the stigmatization of groups based on individual socially significant properties (status-role, local, sociocultural) of subjects. The relevant parameters of group stigmatization expressed in the internal form of socionyms: “center” - “periphery” / “friends - newcomers”; “material well-being and its possible opportunities”, “values, goals and lifestyle” are determined. Significant dichotomies of semantic features in the meaning of the described socionyms are singled out, lexicalization of abbreviations, borrowing and shortening of words are determined as relevant types of word formation. The conjugation of most of the studied socionyms with contexts with negative tonality has been established. The signs associated with the denotation and reflected in the contexts of the functioning of socionyms are characterized.

Apologizing in Kodhi

ABSTRACT This preliminary study investigates apology strategies in Kodhi, an Austronesian language spoken in Sumba, Eastern Indonesia. To understand how Kodhi speakers formulate conceptions of apology, seven hours of video recordings of natural Kodhi speech were analyzed. The apology taxonomy proposed in the Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) is used as a starting point for classifying the types of apologies in Kodhi. In the absence of performative apology verbs (e.g. ‘(be) sorry’, ‘pardon’ among others), Kodhi speakers employ a range of alternative semantic formulae including the use of non-verbal udhoko to confirm the authenticity of a corresponding verbal apology act and ‘(don’t) be angry’ strategies. This is in addition to some apology strategies consistent with the cross-linguistic literature as outlined in the CCSARP model. The results of the study introduce the unique ways of apologizing in Kodhi society, and in so doing, lend valuable insight into Kodhi ‘linguaculture’.

Pragmatic Transfer in Intermediate Japanese Learners' Apology Speech Act

This study aims to investigate the apology speech act strategy employed by Japanese language learners at the intermediate level and the pragmatic transfer from L1 to L2 that occurs. The data for this study were gathered using the Discourse Completion Test (DCT), which examined four apology situations focusing on the relationships with the interlocutors. The subjects of this study were 53 intermediate Japanese learners. The collected data were then classified into eight strategies or semantic formulas. The pragmatic transfer in the learner's expression was divided into pragmalinguistic transfer and sociopragmatic transfer. This study found that several factors were related to the pragmatic transfer. First, learners translate L1 phrases literally to the L2, which leads to pragmalinguistic transfer. Second, many variations and combinations in Japanese words and sentences are difficult compared with expressions in Indonesian, especially in the "kasu-kariru" and "motte iku-motte kuru" context. Third, applying a pragmatic function from L1 to the L2, which leads to sociopragmatic transfer. This study is expected to give reference in speech act study, and help understanding interlanguage pragmatic of second language learners.

Semantic Annotation of Mathematical Formulas in PDF-Documents

This article provides an overview of existing solutions for semantic analysis of mathematical documents, and also presents a method for automatic semantic analysis of documents in PDF format. This method searches for local variables in the text of the article, extracts their definitions and connects concepts with formulas. The advantage of the method over the existing ones is independence from the markup of the original PDF document, which expands the scope of the method. We provide estimates of recall, precision and F-measure for algorithms for finding variables and linking local variables with formulas. The resulting semantic markup of the document will be used to create a collection of documents suitable for the semantic formula search service, which is part of the set of services of the Lobachevskii-DML digital publishing system.

The Realisation of the Refusal Speech Act in Tanjung Tanah Dialect of Kerinci

This study investigates the realisation of the refusal speech acts addressed by the native speakers of Tanjung Tanah (Tj. Tanah) dialect of Kerinci to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. Twenty-five native speakers of the Tj. Tanah dialect; 10 males and 15 females whose ages between 19 to 26-year-old were selected to be research participants. Data were collected by means of an open role-play. Then, the role-play’s data were transcribed and were classified according to the taxonomy of the refusal strategies formulated by Beebe, Takahashi, & Uliss-Weltz (1990). The results showed that the native speakers of Tj. Tanah dialect employed two direct strategies, fourteen indirect strategies, and four adjuncts to refusal. In addition to this, they made different frequency of the semantic formulas when declining the wish of the interlocutors of different social status. Mostly, they made higher frequency of ‘Reasons’, direct ‘No’, ‘Negative Willingness’ and ‘Elaborative Reasons’ to the interlocutors of high and low social status. In contrast, they made higher frequency of direct ‘No’, ‘Reasons’, ‘Negative Willingness’ and ‘Persuasion’ to the interlocutors of equal social status. Clearly, the social status of the interlocutors affects the participants’ choice of the refusal strategies.

A Developmental Study of Pragmatic Strategies of Refusals by Chinese English Majors

This study investigates the pragmatic development of the refusal strategies to the four different stimulus types (1 request, 1 suggestion, 1 invitation, and 1 offer) by Chinese English major students with low-intermediate language proficiency. The data was collected through written discourse completion tasks, and coded based on the modified taxonomy by Beebe et al. (1990). Refusal strategies were analyzed in terms of frequency and contents of the semantic formulas. The results suggested on the whole a downward pattern was observed but statistically there was no significant development towards the learners’ refusal strategies (directness, indirectness and adjuncts). The findings also revealed that the Chinese English major students relied heavily on the indirectness and adjuncts to realize their refusals. Learners’ data displayed the tendency of being verbose and were also found with ungrammatical forms.

Politeness in a Moroccan EFL Classroom: How Students of High School Using Apologizing Strategies in English?

This qualitative/quantitative study investigates Moroccan high school EFL learners’ apologizing strategies based upon a theoretical framework of politeness strategies and the Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Patterns (CCSARP) model. It investigates whether they approach native speakers’ apology norms or their own cultural way of apologizing. To achieve this goal, four first-year baccalaureate classes (Science Experimental Physics major) were observed and then a sample of 64 subjects was randomly selected to fill in a written discourse completion test which had 6 apology situations. All the responses are classified according to both politeness strategies and CCSARP model used by Blum-kulka et al. (1989). The observed classes during the training showed that Moroccan first-year baccalaureate students used an off-record super strategy while apologizing (the use of hints) to the teacher, whereas the teacher used positive politeness while addressing his pupils. The results of the discourse completion test (DCT) revealed that Illocutionary indicating devices (IFIDs) plus an explanation of account (IFIDs + Account) is the most frequently used apology strategy by the subjects. More than 60% employed this semantic formula in all six situations. The use of IFIDs and explanation of account were significantly linked to the effect of subjects’ L1 and due to the impact of their own collective-agency culture. Hence, choosing to use that strategy by the subjects was pragmatically unsuccessful and would be inappropriate by the apologizer since it does not meet the apology norms of native speakers of English, and it indicates and follows the Moroccan culture norms and rules. The paper concludes with some practical suggestions for improving the teaching of apologies.

A pragmatic study of congratulation strategies of Pakistani ESL learners and British English speakers

People usually express their feelings and emotions positively to others when they have happy occasions. However, the ways of expressing congratulation may vary because the expressive speech act “congratulations” is not the only way to express happiness and share others their happy news. The present study investigates the congratulation strategies of Pakistani English as second language (ESL) learners and British English speakers under the influence of social distance variable. A quantitative approach is applied in the analysis with the frequency of strategies (semantic formulas) being numerically analyzed. The current study recruited 120 participants, and who were further divided into four different groups: 30 British English speakers, 30 Pakistani ESL learners in the elite class, 30 Pakistani ESL learners of the middle class, and 30 Pakistani ESL learners in the lower class. For data collection, a discourse completion test (DCT) was used as a tool. The findings reveal that the most frequently used types of congratulation strategy are illocutionary force indicating device (IFID) followed by overlapped strategies (a combination of two), an offer of a good wish, expression of happiness, request for information, encouragement, expression of surprise, and suggestion of celebration, while other types of strategies are not used by the participants. The study reveals the existence of crosscultural differences in the use of congratulations by Pakistani ESL learners. The findings further show how the middle and lower class of Pakistani ESL learners use a more elaborated form of compliment responses (CRs) as compared to Pakistani ESL learners of elite and British English speakers. The findings may help in understanding the pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic aspects of Pakistani ESL learners as compared to British English speakers.

“I Know How to Manage My Time”: Refusal Strategies by EFL Nursing Students

Health professionals who come from different cultural backgrounds are required to interact competently and at the most acceptable communication level that meets the demands of the multicultural context in which English is the medium of communication. Lack of proper communication in such contexts can establish a hostile work environment. Thus, health programs should prepare students interactionally to operate within the work environment competently. A total of 42 nursing students in a Saudi university responded to a Discourse Completion Test. The data show that nursing students demonstrate a tendency to use direct refusal strategies, especially when refusing a request. The analysis also reveals problematic refusal semantic formulas used to address a higher-status person. Thus, diagnosing such communication issues can contribute to establishing a healthy work environment.

THE FUNCTIONAL ESSENCE OF MICROSTRUCTURAL INTONATION IN THE PROCESS OF FORMING THE MUSICIAN'S PERFORMING SKILLS

The paper considers the functional nature of the process pronouncing formulas microstructural intonation as a tool of emotional thinking of the performing musician. One of the most important aspects in the process of education is a moment of knowledge of intonation figuratively audio messages over the time (from the initial stage of training - before the period of the mature skill) to communicate with music and the performing arts. At this stage, it generates a new vision of technology on the mechanisms of action of the essential practical and emotional thinking actions of the performing musician. Awareness of operating formulas microstructural intonation in the learning process - is, first of all, the interaction mechanisms of discourse, analogies, intuition involuntary memory. The process of casting intonation micro-macro constructions is one of the activities. This means that it has certain specific characteristics, characteristics of an activity in the general sense of the concept (activity, motivation, focus, situational, heuristics). The qualitative characteristics of the semantic formulas casting microstructure constructions as activities provide the conditions for the creation of the final product (ie - filling the artistic and imaginative interpretive content of a piece of music), which is also characterized by a certain quality (structure, consistency, commitment, information content, expressiveness, performance, automation, flexibility and dynamic). All qualities as functional essence of the process of microstructural pronouncing formulas (notional) intoning by integrating them cause emotional impact on the listener and make operational a professional suite. The use of micro-structural formulas of intonation in the practice of music pedagogy effectively, efficiently and usually operates on a conscious and sub-level procedural, that is multidirectional development of thinking of the performing musician.

Não sei como dizer em português para não sembrare tão maleducada – o ato de censura na interlíngua de falantes de PLNM “I don´t know how to say it in Portuguese without sounding so disrespectful”- the act of criticism in the interlanguage of non-native

There are few studies in the framework of Interlanguage Pragmatics on how foreign language learners produce the illocutionary speech act of criticism. This is a demanding act, as it threatens the interlocutor’s face, leading to negative emotions, and with implications regarding interpersonal relationships. With focus on a pragmatic perspective, this study aims to analyse the illocutionary speech act of criticism in a formal and asymmetrical context produced by learners of Portuguese as a foreign language. Through a set of oral productions by B1 level students in the project CORal-Cocorpus, and Nguyen’s (2005) model as support, the present analysis intends to (i)identify the direct and indirect intentions of the act of criticism, (ii) list the semantic formulas used by learners, (iii) evaluate the modification strategies students used and (iv) present a proposal for the prototypical structure of this speech act set produced by those learners. The results point to a continuum between the act of criticism and the act of request. There is also evidence of two critical areas in the production of that act, one related to the erroneous use regarding formal and informal language (forms of address) and the other is caused by the coexistent use of strategies that lead to mitigation and intensification

JAPANESE APOLOGY EXPRESSIONS BY JAVANESE AND SUNDANESE SPEAKERS

This research discusses expressions of apology in Japanese by Javanese and Sundanese speakers at Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta. The apology differs between Japanese and Indonesian. Apologizing to the Japanese uses many reasons, the Japanese may distrust the speech partner and cause misunderstanding. In learning Japanese, Javanese-speaking learners are different from Sundanese-speaking learners because their culture also influences them. This research aims to determine the strategy of apology expression by Japanese language learners who speak Javanese and Sundanese as seen from the semantic formula and the differences between the two. This research used a descriptive method with a qualitative approach to describe the strategy of apologizing in Japanese by Javanese and Sundanese mother tongue learners using semantic formulas. Respondents were UMY students from level 2 and level 3 PBJ Study Program with 15 Javanese speaking students and 15 Sundanese speaking students. This research showed that most Japanese learners who speak Javanese and Sundanese tended to use the Speech Act Indication Expression (apology and appreciation) when expressing Japanese apologies. They used polite language ultimately when apologizing to lecturers.