Self-deceptive Enhancement Research Articles

Minimizing Social Desirability in Questionnaires of Non-Cognitive Measurements

Data obtained through questionnaires sometimes respond to the items presented by social norms, so sometimes they do not suit themselves. High social desirability (SD) in non-cognitive measurements will cause item bias. Several ways are used to reduce item bias, including freeing respondents from not writing their names or being anonymous, explaining to the participants to respond to each statement honestly, as they are or according to themselves, and responding to the questionnaire online or offline. This research aims to prove that several methods can minimize the possibility of item bias SD and academic dishonesty (AD). The research was carried out with an experimental study using a factorial design. There were 309 respondents who were willing to be involved in this research. Data analysis was carried out using multivariate ANOVA. The research results show differences for all variables, Self-Deceptive Enhancement (SDE), Impression Management (IM), and AD in the anonymous group. There are differences in AD in the groups that provide a complete explanation and do not explain, and there is an interaction between the average AD based on the anonymous and explanation group.

Minimizing Social Desirability in Questionnaires of Non-Cognitive Measurements

Data obtained through questionnaires sometimes respond to the items presented by social norms, so sometimes they do not suit themselves. High social desirability (SD) in non-cognitive measurements will cause item bias. Several ways are used to reduce item bias, including freeing respondents from not writing their names or being anonymous, explaining to the participants to respond to each statement honestly, as they are or according to themselves, and responding to the questionnaire online or offline. This research aims to prove that several methods can minimize the possibility of item bias SD and academic dishonesty (AD). The research was carried out with an experimental study using a factorial design. There were 309 respondents who were willing to be involved in this research. Data analysis was carried out using multivariate ANOVA. The research results show differences for all variables, Self-Deceptive Enhancement (SDE), Impression Management (IM), and AD in the anonymous group. There are differences in AD in the groups that provide a complete explanation and do not explain, and there is an interaction between the average AD based on the anonymous and explanation group.

The Positive Effect of Social Support in the Relationship Between Emotion and Motivation of People in Science

This study explores the role of social support as a mediator in the relationship between self-emotional appraisal and motivation in people in science. It also examines the moderating role of self-deceptive enhancement in the relationship between self-emotional appraisal and social support. Survey responses from 6,943 people in science in Spain were analyzed (43% women), aged 20–96 (M = 48.8; SD = 9.94). Structural equation modeling was used to examine a moderated mediation model explaining the path between self-emotional appraisal and motivation. The analysis controlled for age, gender and organization type. The results show a positive link between self-emotional appraisal and motivation. Mediation by social support strengthens this link: For self-emotional appraisal to be effective, people in science need to feel others’ support when tackling a problem. Moderation by self-deceptive enhancement strengthens the association of self-emotional appraisal with social support: The need to adapt one’s self-image to others’ expectations activates the pursuit of social support. The implications of self-emotional appraisal and social support for improving motivation are discussed, as is the role of self-deception in social support as perceived by people in science.

Should Positive Psychology Researchers Control for Response Style?

This study investigates self-deceptive enhancement (SDE) as a control for response style in measuring positive psychology constructs, focusing on work engagement and three self-reported individual performance components. Addressing the critiques of positive psychology, particularly its reliance on self-report measures and susceptibility to method variance, we examine the role of SDE—characterised by unconsciously inflated self-perceptions—in self-reported surveys. Using latent variable modelling with different model specifications, we assess the impact of controlling for SDE in the relationship between work engagement and self-reported performance outcomes in a sample of small and medium enterprise employees. Our results show that the baseline model, not accounting for SDE, indicates statistically significant paths between work engagement and all three performance outcomes. However, when SDE is controlled for as a marker variable or a predictor, these relationships change significantly, with a notable reduction in the explained variance for two of the three performance components. The results highlight how SDE can impact substantive findings, underscoring the importance of considering controlling for SDE as an unconscious response style in positive psychology research. All in all, controlling for SDE may become necessary for improving the accuracy and consistency of research results in this field.

Exploring the (Mal)adaptive Consequences of Self-Deceptive Enhancement: A Narrative Review

Introduction. Despite the abundance of literature on the nature and functions of self-deceptive enhancement (SDE), there is still a lack of consensus about whether and when SDE is adaptive or maladaptive for individuals. This question of the costs and benefits of SDE is of particular clinical relevance and is the focus of the present literature review. Method. Building on an earlier meta-analytic review by Dufner et al. (2019), a total of 53 additional studies were identified and included in this review. Results. 25 of the studies supported the adaptiveness of SDE, 27 supported the maladaptiveness of SDE, and two supported mixed findings. Discussion. While SDE appears to be commonplace and experienced as beneficial in the short term, its longer-term negative consequences for learning, relationships, ethical behavior, and substance use recovery seem to outweigh its immediate benefits. However, these findings are limited by methodological issues related to the reliance on self-report measures, lack of consensus about the definition of SDE, and lack of clinical studies focused on SDE. Future studies should clarify the construct of SDE versus positive illusions and other related constructs and should examine SDE’s role as a possible maintaining factor for psychopathology beyond substance use disorders.

Social desirability, dietary intakes, and variables related to attitudes and behaviours towards eating among French-speaking adults from Quebec, Canada: The PREDISE study.

The primary objective of this study was to examine how social desirability is associated with self-reported measures of dietary intakes and variables related to attitudes and behaviours towards eating. This analysis was conducted in 1083 adults (50.0% women) from the PREDISE study. Social desirability was assessed using the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR) questionnaire, which includes two subscales: (1) self-deceptive enhancement (SDE), i.e., having an overly positive self-image and (2) impression management (IM), i.e., intentional response distortion to please. BIDR total score and IM subscore were positively associated with the Canadian Healthy Eating Index (C-HEI) (ß = 0.24 and ß = 0.50; p≤0.0003), calculated using data from three self-administered 24 h food recalls. All BIDR scores were positively associated with self-determined motivation for eating regulation (0.03 ≤ ß ≤ 0.06; p<0.0001), measured by the Regulation of Eating Behavior Scale, and with the intuitive eating score (0.02 ≤ ß ≤ 0.05; p<0.0001). Also, all BIDR scores were negatively associated with hunger and disinhibition scores measured by the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (-0.17 ≤ ß ≤ -0.09; p<0.0001). All these associations were adjusted for age, sex, BMI, and the education level. Furthermore, controlling for both dimensions of social desirability did not impact the magnitude of the association between self-determined motivation (the strongest predictor of healthy eating in the PREDISE study) and C-HEI. According to our results, associations are observed with diet quality, as well as with attitudes and behaviours towards eating; therefore, a measurement of social desirability responding would be pertinent in studies using those or related variables.

Detecting Faking on Self-Report Measures Using the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding

We compared three methods for scoring the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR) to detect faked responses on self-report measures: (1) polytomous, (2) dichotomous emphasizing exaggerating endorsement of socially desirable behaviors, and (3) dichotomous emphasizing exaggerating denial of such behaviors. The results revealed that respondents on average were able to fake good or fake bad and that faking markedly affected score distributions, subscale score intercorrelations, and overall model fits. When using the Impression Management scale, polytomous and dichotomous exaggerated endorsement scoring were best for detecting faking good, whereas polytomous and dichotomous exaggerated denial scoring were best for detecting faking bad. When using the Self-Deceptive Enhancement scale, polytomous and dichotomous exaggerated endorsement scoring again were best for detecting faking good, but dichotomous exaggerated denial scoring was best for detecting faking bad. Percentages of correct classification of honest and faked responses for the most effective methods for any given scale ranged from 85% to 93%, with accuracy on average in detecting faking bad greater than in detecting faking good and greater when using the Impression Management than using the Self-Deceptive Enhancement scale for both types of faking. Overall, these results best support polytomous scoring of the BIDR Impression Management scale as the single most practical and efficient means to detect faking. Cut scores that maximized classification accuracy for all scales and scoring methods are provided for future use in screening for possible faking within situations in which relevant local data are unavailable.

Impression management in daily life: an experience sampling test for the expression of impression management as interpersonally oriented self-control.

Impression management (IM) scales (often called lie or social desirability scales) have long been applied as validity scales in assessment processes. Recent developments have indicated that these scales measure a substantive personality predisposition and not response bias, but the nature of the disposition is disputable. According to the 'interpersonally oriented self-control' approach, IM is associated with high self-control exerted mainly in public social contexts to facilitate adaptation. Supported in laboratory settings, this approach has not been tested in real-life dynamics. In the present experience sampling study, participants reported 3 times a day (10 days) about their social condition (alone/'with others') and their level of self-control. Results revealed that IM was associated with stronger self-control when with other people than when alone. Comparable reactions to public social context were not found for self-deception enhancement, trait self-control, or agreeableness, marking this a unique aspect of IM. The findings further stress the need to reconsider the use of IM scales for validity purposes in assessment processes.

Leading with a cool head and a warm heart: trait-based leadership resources linked to task performance, perceived stress, and work engagement

Leaders of today need to achieve well in terms of task performance, perceiving low stress, and having high levels of work engagement. One may ask whether trait-based leadership resource factors can be identified and how such resource factors might relate to task performance, perceived stress, and work engagement. Our aim was to test the hypothesis, derived from Hobfoll’s motivational Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, that there are trait-based leadership resource factors, which are differentially correlated to the leaders’ task performance, perceived stress, and work engagement. Leaders (N = 344) aged from 23 to 65 years (M = 49, SD = 8.6; 58% women) completed an online questionnaire including measures of task performance, perceived stress, work engagement, personality traits, trait emotional intelligence, empathy, performance-related self-esteem, compassionate and rational leadership competence, and coping resources for stress. Using exploratory factor analysis, we identified four trait-based leadership resource factors. With Bonferroni adjustment, and controlling for sex, age, number of years in the current managerial position, self-deceptive enhancement, and impression management, only Rational Mastery was significantly positively correlated with task performance. Rational Mastery, Efficient Coping, and Modesty were negatively correlated with perceived stress, and all factors except Modesty, but including the fourth (Good-Heartedness) were positively correlated with work engagement. Organizations striving for sustainable work conditions should support trait-based leadership, which depends not only on a task-oriented resource such as rational mastery, but also on human-oriented resources such as efficient coping, modesty, and good-heartedness, all of them being differentially related to task performance, perceived stress, and work engagement.

“I alone can fix it”: is social courage a bright side of narcissism?

PurposeNarcissism is characterized by grandiosity, and it is included in the Dark Triad with Machiavellianism and psychopathy. Narcissism relates to many detrimental outcomes, but a growing stream of research has investigated beneficial outcomes of the Dark Triad. The authors continue this stream of research by assessing the relation of narcissism with social courage behaviors, which are prosocial actions with personal social risks. The authors propose that this relation is mediated by self-deceptive enhancement and subjective invulnerability and also test these relations while including the other Dark Triad dimensions.Design/methodology/approachThe authors perform two survey studies to investigate our research questions. The first utilizes a cross-sectional approach, whereas the second utilizes a time-separated approach.FindingsThe results of this study show that narcissism has an indirect effect on social courage via both mediators, and it also produced a significant direct effect. Machiavellianism and psychopathy did not produce any reliable effects on social courage – whether direct or indirect.Practical implicationsThe authors support that a “dark” trait relates to a “bright” outcome, but also that a bright outcome relates to a dark trait. These findings link the narcissism and social courage to novel theoretical frameworks, such as those associated with ethical decision making and self-regulation, which opens many directions for future research on both constructs.Originality/valueThe current article addresses two recent calls for novel research: the study of courage as well as positive outcomes of negative traits. It also adds much-needed nuance to current research on narcissism and courage.

Can Faking Be Measured With Dedicated Validity Scales? Within-Subject Trifactor Mixture Modeling Applied to BIDR Responses.

A sample of 516 participants responded to the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR) under answer honest and instructed faking conditions in a within-subjects design. We analyze these data with a novel application of trifactor modeling that models the two substantive factors measured by the BIDR-self-deceptive enhancement (SDE) and impression management (IM), condition-related common factors, and item-specific factors. The model permits examination of invariance and change within subjects across conditions. Participants were able to significantly increase their SDE and IM in the instructed faking condition relative to the honest response condition. Mixture modeling confirmed the existence of a theoretical two-class solution comprised of approximately two thirds of "compliers" and one third of "noncompliers." Factor scores had good determinacy and correlations with observed scores were near unity for continuous scoring, supporting observed score interpretations of BIDR scales in high-stakes settings. Correlations were somewhat lower for the dichotomous scoring protocol. Overall, results show that the BIDR scales function similarly as measures of socially desirable functioning in low- and high-stakes conditions. We discuss conditions under which we expect these results will and will not generalize to other validity scales.

The interactive effect of power and self-construal on consumers’ preferences for brand-logo size

A logo reflects a brand's face and is an indicator of the brand’s personality and identity. Therefore, its importance has been long established among marketers. This article develops marketers' understanding on how logo size preference can be affected by consumers' psychological power and self-construal. Through six studies, we show that larger brand logos are preferred by low-power (vs. high-power) consumers when an independent self-construal is salient because of a greater tendency to engage in self-deceptive enhancement—the tendency to see oneself in exaggerated and glorified terms. In contrast, a smaller brand logo is preferred by low-power (vs. high-power) consumers when an interdependent self-construal is salient because of a greater tendency to engage in impression management—the tendency to be modest and normatively appropriate. These findings provide meaningful insights for managers in terms of logo size decisions and marketing communications.

To thine own self, be true: Examining change in self-reported alcohol measures over time as related to socially desirable responding bias among people with unhealthy alcohol use

Background Due to a conscious or unconscious desire to be perceived favorably by others, some participants may under or overexaggerate when reporting sensitive behaviors or attitudes, including those related to addictions. This socially desirable responding bias should be considered when using self-reports in predictive models since it introduces error. Methods: A total of 1711 participants were recruited using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk crowdsourcing platform for two randomized controlled trials investigating the effectiveness of brief online interventions for hazardous alcohol use. At baseline, participants completed the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR). Four measures of alcohol use were collected at baseline and follow-up: number of drinks consumed in a typical week, on one occasion, consequences experienced, and amount of perceived risk of injury or illness from alcohol use. Results: As expected, individuals scoring high on the BIDR subscales reported less alcohol use and related behaviors (p < 0.05); however, repeating the analyses for each gender showed no difference for females asked direct questions about the frequency of their alcohol use. Mixed-effects models investigating the interaction of socially desirable responding bias over time on alcohol-related measures showed some significant differences in the amount of change reported depending on BIDR scores. Participants with higher self-deceptive enhancement scores reported less change over time in their ratings of risk of illness or injury (p = 0.001) compared to lower-scoring participants. Likewise, high-scoring participants reported less change in the number of consequences experienced due to alcohol use over time on both BIDR subscales. Neither direct measure of alcohol use seemed affected by BIDR scores over time. A different pattern was found in males and females analyzed separately. Conclusions: These findings suggest that researchers should consider including measures of socially desirable responding bias in longitudinal studies involving self-reported alcohol use, particularly when modeling alcohol-related measures using rating scales across time. In addition, separate gender analyses may be appropriate. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03008928. Registered 30 December 2016; ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03060135. Registered 17 February 2017

Correcting for bias using multidimensional measures of Socially Desirable Response

We use multidimensional measures of socially desirable response (SDR) to reduce the bias introduced by respondents’ need for approval from interviewer (Impression Management — IM) or to perceive oneself favorably (Self-Deceptive Enhancement — SDE). Using data from a field experiment, we show that (1) SDE explains misreporting of compliance status, (2) controlling for SDE effectively eliminates the bias resulting from using wrongly reported compliance and (3) controlling for IM does not correct for the bias introduced by SDR.

Self-deception and discrepancies in self-evaluation

Self-deception is an intricate psychological construct, grounded in relatively little empirical evidence as an individual difference variable. The present research offers a direct test of one of the central scales of self-deception—the Self-Deception Enhancement (SDE) scale—by comparing explicit and implicit self-evaluations. Using the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP), participants (N = 150) reported about their implicit self-evaluation. These ratings were compared to explicit self-reports about self-evaluation. Results showed that higher self-deception was associated with a larger discrepancy between explicit and implicit self-evaluations. Specifically, higher self-deception was associated with a more positive explicit self-evaluation but with a more negative implicit self-evaluation. These findings offer one of the first direct tests of the SDE, supporting its viability.

The role of self-deceptive enhancement and impression management in adolescents’ self-reported attitudes toward drinking, willingness to drink and risky alcohol consumption

ABSTRACT Objective This study focuses on self-deceptive enhancement (SDE) and impression management (IM) as socially desirable responding tendencies influencing adolescents’ self-reported measures of alcohol consumption. Specifically, it aims at examining their associations with basic demographics (gender, age, and socio-economic status) and drinking attitudes and behaviors, as well as testing potential interaction effects on risky use. Methods One hundred and sixty Italian students (45.6% females), 13–17 aged (M = 14.82, SD = 1.11), completed basic demographics and measures of social desirability responding, attitudes toward drinking, willingness to drink, and risky alcohol consumption. Pearson’s correlations, T-tests and hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. Results SDE and IM are not associated with basic demographics. Overall, IM is associated with attitudes toward drinking, willingness to drink, and risky alcohol consumption, while no association is found for self-deception. Some interaction effects emerge showing that the problem of underreporting affects especially impression managers with more positive attitudes toward drinking. Instead, self-deceivers who are more prone to drinking could inflate their consumption levels. Conclusion This study can expand our understanding of the underlying processes involved in socially desirable responding, which could allow the development of effective strategies to minimize measurement biases in assessing hazardous drinking in adolescent samples.

Authenticity Is Correlated With Mindfulness and Emotional Intelligence

Humanistic psychology has long been interested in authenticity. Carl Rogers proposed that authenticity leads to more fully functioning behavior. However, it is only in recent years that there has been empirical research into the correlates of authenticity. The aim was to test for association between authenticity and two individual difference factors of much contemporary interest—mindfulness and emotional intelligence. Participants were 197 adults recruited either through convenience sampling or an online survey. All completed the Authenticity Scale, the Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills, and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding. Higher scores on authenticity were associated with higher scores on self-deceptive enhancement, mindfulness, and emotional intelligence. Regression analyses showed that authenticity, specifically the self-alienation subscale, was able to predict mindfulness, and the authentic living subscale was able to predict emotional intelligence, taking into account social desirability and self-deceptive effects. Further research is now needed into the association between authenticity and self-deception and the causal relationships of these variables with emotional intelligence, mindfulness, and other characteristics of the fully functioning person.

Value priorities, impression management and self-deceptive enhancement: Once again, much substance and a little bit of style

ABSTRACT The connection between self-reported personal values and socially desirable responding in social psychology has been backed up by little empirical evidence. This study expands upon the pioneering work carried out by Schwartz and colleagues by analyzing the relationship between values and social desirability through the use of different self-report measures of values and by considering the multidimensional nature of social desirability. The study involved 224 Italian respondents (63.4% female, mean age = 22.39, SD = 2.47) who completed a questionnaire. Results confirmed Schwartz et al.’s previous findings supporting the substantive hypothesis. Specifically, impression management was more related to values highlighting the importance of social harmony (i.e., conservation and self-transcendence) rather than to those characterized by a personal focus (i.e., openness to change and self-enhancement). However, a different pattern of connection was found for self-deceptive enhancement. This study addresses how to deal with social desirability in research into personal values.

The role of social desirability responding in the longitudinal relations between intention and behaviour

Social desirability responding (SDR) is the tendency of respondents to answer survey questions in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others. Scholars in environmental psychology have argued SDR influences individuals’ answers to surveys asking their pro-environmental intentions, attitude and behaviour. Yet empirical evidence indicates the correlations between SDR and environmentalism questions are weak, which was confirmed by a unpublished meta-analysis reporting pooled correlations ranging from .06 to .11. We used data from the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (N = 6518) to examine possible subtle relations between two SDR items measuring self-deceptive enhancement and impression management with several environmental questions in a national sample. Cross-sectional and delayed correlations were weak, but autoregressive cross-lagged models showed a marginal interaction between the impression management item and self-reported behaviour in predicting change in pro-environmental intention one-year after. We discuss practical implications of the findings.

Lives of significance (and purpose and coherence): subclinical narcissism, meaning in life, and subjective well-being

Three studies addressed two research questions. First, does accounting for meaning in life (MIL) wipe out the association between narcissism and other aspects of well-being? Second, among the three facets of MIL (significance, purpose, and coherence), does significance explain the association between narcissism and MIL? All studies measured narcissism and MIL. Study 1 was a re-analysis of cross-sectional data, including measures of subjective well-being (SWB) and self-deceptive enhancement (N = 415; Womick et al., 2019). Study 2, N = 300, measured the facets of MIL in a sample of adults. Study 3, N = 295, included MIL facets and self-esteem in a sample of students. In Studies 1 and 3, MIL fully mediated the relationship between narcissism and SWB. SWB did not fully mediate the association between narcissism and MIL. Studies 2 and 3 showed that all MIL facets accounted for the association between narcissism and MIL. Self-esteem partially mediated the association between narcissism and MIL, but self-esteem and MIL, both, independently wiped out the link between narcissism and SWB. Narcissism contributes to SWB through MIL, and the paths from narcissism to SWB through MIL and self-esteem are independent. Implications are discussed.