Self-sustaining Ecosystem Research Articles

Intelligent Recognition of Chelonioidea Sea Turtles

The preservation of our natural environment and ecological system has recently become an alarming global concern due to the increase in worldwide pollution levels. Many agencies, governmental and non-governmental organizations are leading awareness campaigns of the dwindling ecosystem in various environments. One of these environments is marine life which forms an important integral part of realizing a self-sustaining ecosystem. Unfortunately, some marine dwellers such as Chelonioidea turtles are becoming endangered species. This is also partly due to lack of information on the more rare and mysterious Chelonioidea species; their habitats, traveling routes and tracks. There are eight species of these mysterious marine dwellers in the world. This paper presents a novel application that could aid in preserving the international marine life ecological system. Our intelligent identification system is based on pattern recognition and neural learning of visual information in sea turtles images. The system is scale and rotational invariant and thus can be successfully used in recognizing the species via their images.

Two-tiered methodology for the assessment and projection of mine vegetation rehabilitation against mine closure restoration goal

Summary Reinstatement of a ‘self-sustaining native ecosystem’ is an increasingly common revegetation goal for open-cut mines in Australia. This is usually applied as a regulatory requirement for mine closure, with some mines aiming for a high standard of ‘ecological restoration’. There is a growing appreciation that ecological restoration outcomes of mine rehabilitation are unachievable within the life of a mine and that assessment methodologies are subjective and inadequate to provide the high degree of confidence needed for mine closure. Here we elaborate on the integration of the BioCondition assessment and the Ecosystem Dynamics Simulator (EDS) trajectory methodologies. We also demonstrate an alternative early relinquishment assessment criteria similar to that used for early recruitment of regrowth native vegetation that exhibit structural characteristics of undisturbed native vegetation into remnant status in Queensland. We used ten age cohorts of rehabilitation ranging from three to 22 years at Meandu coal mine, south-east Queensland. All the sites gained average BioCondition scores ranging from 19 to 44 out of possible score of 65. Growth trajectories indicated decline in species and basal area on all sites in the next three decades as the dense stock of short-lived acacia species senesce and die. None of the sites are projected to meet self-sustaining status by 2072, but there is evidence in some of a progression. All the sites except two (K2.3 and SW2) are projected to achieve remnant vegetation status by 2062. Applying the remnant vegetation criteria results in shorter timeframes and robustly evaluates whether sites are progressing towards the self-sustaining ecosystem mine closure goal.

Shrub-induced understory vegetation changes in reclaimed mine sites

Despite advances in post-mine sites reclamation methods in the recent years, restoration treatments are not always successful in creating self-sustaining ecosystems. Occasionally, vegetation remains in a state of arrested succession where conditions are hostile for many late-successional target species. An in-depth study of the environmental factors that control vegetation dynamics on reclaimed mined sites may, therefore, improve the methods for late-successional species introduction, rehabilitating the landscape effectively. In this context, using 12 reclaimed mines in northern Spain colonized mainly by two leguminous shrubs (Cytisus scoparius and Genista florida) we explored: (i) how organic-matter thickness, bryophyte cover and plant diversity and cover attributes change across a gradient of dominant shrub cover/volume, and (ii) how the understorey plant species were associated with these shrub canopies. We hypothesized that shrub growth modified the micro-climatic conditions and influenced the understorey plant species either by facilitation or competition. The results reveal an important positive effect of shrub volume on micro-environmental conditions, such as organic matter-thickness and bryophyte cover, creating environmental heterogeneity underneath larger shrub canopies. At the same time, the shrub volume gradient was also associated with species composition; there was a shift in plant composition from a greater abundance of annual, light-demanding species and legumes in open conditions towards water-requiring, shade-adapted, and broad-leaved species under greater shrub volumes. In contrast, there were no shrub effects in diversity and evenness. The analysis of individual species indicates that 18 out of the 40 most frequent species showed a significant association with shrub volume. Assessment of the species optima associated with shrub colonization allows the development of new species mixtures that are tailored to individual site conditions to favour desired plant communities. Moreover, it seems that shrubs acted as ecosystem engineers in these reclaimed mined sites. Natural shrub encroachment has been shown in this study as one means through which these ecosystems can be modified to create heterogeneity in micro-environmental conditions and hence inducing greater overall diversity.

Genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration using native tree species

Rehabilitation and restoration of forest ecosystems are in growing demand to tackle climate change, biodiversity loss and desertification—major environmental problems of our time. Interest in restoration of ecosystems is increasingly translated into strong political commitment to large-scale tree planting projects. Along with this new impetus and the enormous scale of planned projects come both opportunities and risks: opportunities to significantly increase the use of native species, and risks of failure associated with the use of inadequate or mismatched reproductive material, which though it may provide forest cover in the short term, will not likely establish a self-sustaining ecosystem. The value of using native tree species in ecosystem restoration is receiving growing recognition both among restoration practitioners and policy makers. However, insufficient attention has been given to genetic variation within and among native tree species, their life histories and the consequences of their interactions with each other and with their environment. Also restoration practitioners have often neglected to build in safeguards against the anticipated effects of anthropogenic climate change. Measurement of restoration success has tended to be assessments of hectares covered or seedling survival in a short timeframe, neither of which is an indicator of ecosystem establishment in the long term. In this article, we review current practices in ecosystem restoration using native tree species, with a particular focus on genetic considerations. Our discussion is organised across three themes: (i) species selection and the sourcing of forest reproductive material; (ii) increasing resilience by fostering natural selection, ecological connectivity and species associations; and (iii) measuring the success of restoration activities. We present a number of practical recommendations for researchers, policymakers and restoration practitioners to increase the potential for successful interventions. We recommend the development and adoption of decision-support tools for: (i) collecting and propagating germplasm in a way that ensures a broad genetic base of restored tree populations, including planning the sourcing of propagation material of desired species well before the intended planting time; (ii) matching species and provenances to restoration sites based on current and future site conditions, predicted or known patterns of variation in adaptive traits and availability of seed sources; and (iii) landscape-level planning in restoration projects.

Cyber entrepreneurial venture: Case studies on Phenomenon of Venture Creation

Purpose: Cyber Entrepreneurship is gaining much prominence in both developed nations and developing nations and has thus created higher demand for need to study cyber entrepreneurship.
 In tandem, entrepreneurship and cyber entrepreneurship have been the focus of researchers, educators as well as public and private bodies.
 Methodology: The research methodology is based on case study method. This paper explores the initiatives in cyber entrepreneurship in various parts of the world through content analysis of journal articles and websites on the subject.
 Findings: The findings of the research study show that cyber world has given birth to a new breed of cyber entrepreneurs who have used information technology and the Internet to create small, self-sustaining financial eco-systems using a minimum of financial and infrastructural resources creating employment for themselves and this new breed has created employment for others.
 Originality/contribution:This paper contributed by identifying various practices adopted by successful cyber entrepreneurial ventures.

Bird Pollinator Visitation is Equivalent in Island and Plantation Planting Designs in Tropical Forest Restoration Sites

Active restoration is one strategy to reverse tropical forest loss. Given the dynamic nature of climates, human populations, and other ecosystem components, the past practice of using historical reference sites as restoration targets is unlikely to result in self-sustaining ecosystems. Restoring sustainable ecological processes like pollination is a more feasible goal. We investigated how flower cover, planting design, and landscape forest cover influenced bird pollinator visits to Inga edulis trees in young restoration sites in Costa Rica. I. edulis trees were located in island plantings, where seedlings had been planted in patches, or in plantation plantings, where seedlings were planted to cover the restoration area. Sites were located in landscapes with scant (10–21%) or moderate (35–76%) forest cover. Trees with greater flower cover received more visits from pollinating birds; neither planting design nor landscape forest cover influenced the number of pollinator visits. Resident hummingbirds and a migratory bird species were the most frequent bird pollinators. Pollination in the early years following planting may not be as affected by details of restoration design as other ecological processes like seed dispersal. Future work to assess the quality of various pollinator species will be important in assessing this idea.

Does genetic diversity of restored sites differ from natural sites? A comparison of Vallisneria americana (Hydrocharitaceae) populations within the Chesapeake Bay

The goal of ecological restoration is to re-establish self-sustaining ecosystems that will resist future perturbation without additional human input. We focus here on the re-establishment of submersed aquatic macrophyte beds in the restoration of the Chesapeake Bay estuary. Degraded environmental conditions are often to blame for poor bed establishment, but genetic factors could also be contributing to low survival. We quantified the effect of restoration practices on genetic diversity in the submersed aquatic plant species Vallisneria americana Michx. (Hydrocharitaceae) in the Chesapeake Bay. In 2007, we collected 440 shoots from 8 restored/natural site pairs and 4 restoration stock repositories, and genotyped those individuals at 10 microsatellite loci. Restoration practices do not appear to negatively impact genetic diversity, and basic measures of genetic diversity within restored sites overlap with natural sites. However, small population size of restored sites, significant inbreeding coefficients within 3 sites, and low overlap of allele composition among sites provide cause for concern. These problems are relatively minor, and we propose several corrections that would alleviate them altogether. Managers should be encouraged by our findings as well as the current state of the genetic diversity within V. americana restoration efforts.

Rewilding – A New Paradigm for Nature Conservation in Scotland?

Rewilding is a strategy for the conservation of complete, self-sustaining ecosystems, primarily involving the protection and, where necessary, reintroduction, of populations of keystone species in large, connected reserve networks. A potential method of preserving ecosystem functions and biodiversity, it is now receiving a great deal of practical and political attention, particularly in North America. In Scotland, where many native species have been extirpated in the relatively recent past, rewilding has clear relevance and may provide an overarching set of objectives for current programmes of native woodland restoration and species reintroductions. Nevertheless, rewilding is not widely used as a term or strategy in Scottish conservation. This review considers the development of the concept and its possible application in Scotland, and identifies substantial scope for rewilding, in terms of the restoration and protection of large areas of wild land, and of the reintroduction of native species which have been driven to extinction by human activity. As the environmental, social and economic benefits which are likely to result from a programme of rewilding in Scotland outweigh the potential drawbacks, the adoption of rewilding is recommended as one aim of environmental policy.

Ecological and functional roles of mycorrhizas in semi-arid ecosystems of Southeast Spain

Mycorrhizas are worldwide symbiotic associations established between certain soil fungi and most vascular plants and are fundamental in optimizing plant fitness and soil quality. Mycorrhizal symbioses improve the resilience of plant communities against environment stresses, including nutrient deficiency, drought and soil disturbance. Since these stresses are paramount in the degradation of semi-arid ecosystems in the SE Spain, a series of basic, strategic and applied studies have been made to ascertain how the activity and diversity of mycorrhizal fungi affect plant community composition, structure and dynamics in this region. These investigations are reviewed here in terms of: (i) analysing the diversity of mycorrhizal fungi; (ii) assessing the ecological and functional interactions among plant communities and their associated mycorrhizal fungal populations; and (iii) using mycorrhizal inoculation technology for the restoration of degraded semi-arid areas in Southeast Spain. Disturbance of the target semi-arid ecosystems decreases the density and diversity of mycorrhizal fungust populations. Nevertheless, the mycorrhizal propagules do not disappear completely suggesting a certain degree of stress adaptation, and these remaining, resilient ecotypes are being used as plant inoculants. Numerous field experiments, using plant species from the natural succession inoculated with a community of indigenous mycorrhizal fungi, have been carried out in revegetation projects in the semi-arid Iberian Southeast. This management strategy improved both plant development and soil quality, and is a successful biotechnological tool to aid the restoration of self-sustaining ecosystems. However, despite a 20-year history of this work, we lack a comprehensive view of the mycorrhizal potential to improve the composition, diversity, structure and functionality of drought-adapted plant communities in the Region.

Vegetation convergence during early succession on coal wastes: a 6-year permanent plot study

AbstractQuestion: Does the course of succession on a coal mine restored by hydro-seeding converge with a reference community in terms of species compositionandvegetationstructure?Whatistherateofsuccessiononrestoredareas?Howdoesthebalancebetweenlocalcolonizationandextinctionrateschangeduringsuccession? Which species group (native or hydroseeded) determines thesuccessional process?Location: Large reclaimed coal mine in the north of Palencia province, north-ern Spain (42150 0 N, 4138 0 W).Methods: Between 2004 and 2009 we monitored annually vascular plantspecies cover in nine permanent plots (20m 2 each) at a restored mine; theseplots were structured to account for site aspect (north, south and flat). Threeidentical permanent plots were established in the surrounding referencecommunity and monitored in 2004 and 2009. We used detrended correspon-dence analysis to assess successional trends and rates of succession, generalizedlinear mixed models to derive patterns of vegetation structural changes andturnover through time, and Huisman–Olff–Fresco modelling to illustrateresponse of individual species through time.Results: The three restored mine areas exhibited a successional trend towardsthe reference community through time, although speed of convergencediffered. However, after 6 years the restored sites had diverged considerablyand this was greater than the dissimilarity reduction with respect to thereference community. Richness, diversity and native species cover increasedlinearly through time, whereas hydroseeded species cover decreased. Successof hydroseeded species initially differed in the three areas, and this wasnegatively related with native species colonization rates. Response patternsthrough time of ten hydroseeded and 20 most common native species aredescribed.Conclusions: Vegetation structural parameters rapidly converged with thereferencecommunity,whereascompositionalconvergenceneededmuchlonger.At the same time, successional composition trajectories and rates were relatedto site properties (here aspect).IntroductionOpencast mining is a major environmental disturbancethat often leaves a landscape with no vegetation and verypoor soil-forming material on which an ecosystem candevelop (Herath et al. 2009). In such damaged systems,the aim of the ecological restoration should be to create ahealthy, self-sustaining ecosystem, which is similar to thesemi-natural or natural ecosystems that were presentbefore the mining operations. As restoration proceeds,thereisanexcellentopportunitytostudythesuccessionaldynamics of vegetation development in these newly

Environmental compliance

The Macquarie dictionary defines ‘compliance’ as ‘1. An act of conforming; acquiescing, or yielding. 2. base subservience.’. Does environmental compliance mean yielding to environmental forces, or does it mean being subservient to a human perception of the environment? How ‘environmental compliance’ may be defined by the various stakeholders in the mining industry, companies, governments and communities is considered in the light of their possible objectives in requiring ‘environmental compliance’. Examples of potentially conflicting environmental requirements in waste management are considered, particularly operational requirements such as minimal dust generation versus completion environmental compliance requirements of establishing a self-sustaining ecosystem or geomorphologically stable landform. Mechanisms available to establish standards for determining if environmental compliance has been attained are described. These include guidelines (company and government), which can range from detailed (tailings construction) to broad and general (closure strategies); codes of practice, ministerial conditions and regulations are discussed. Some of the strengths and weaknesses these mechanisms are described, using examples from industry experience. The site specific nature of most mine waste management operations means that one approach cannot fit all situations and the fairness of having a solution acceptable in one operation, but not in another is discussed. Does strict compliance with a human perception of the environment and how it functions promote a ‘lowest common denominator’ approach? The potential technology restricting aspects of requiring ‘compliance’ is discussed and the alternative compliance requirements of ‘outcome’ compliance and ‘process’ compliance considered. The time frame for assessing environmental compliance is discussed. The potential use of simulation models as potential tools for assessing future environmental performance is considered. Moreover, it is concluded that ‘environmental compliance’ means conforming to the environment rather than simply acquiescing or yielding to man-made ‘rules’.

Wild Horse Protection Policies: Environmental and Animal Ethics in Transition

Wild horse protection policies in the United States and the Netherlands reflect ethical claims and scientific arguments, often cast as opposing positions favoring the integrity of self-sustaining ecosystems versus the welfare of individual animals. Neither holistic eco-centric, nor individualistic bio-centric ethical claims provide guidance to public sector practitioners who care for wild horses removed from U.S. public rangelands and living in holding facilities awaiting adoption; or who manage herds of de-domesticated horses in Dutch nature reserves. Wild horses are becoming increasingly dependent on transitional environments that are neither wild nor domestic. New ethical and scientific arguments are therefore needed to support revisions to existing policies.

A population genetic evaluation of ecological restoration with the case study on Cyclobalanopsis myrsinaefolia (Fagaceae)

The ultimate goal of ecological restoration is to create a self-sustaining ecosystem that is resilient to perturbation without further assistance. Genetic variation is a prerequisite for evolutionary response to environmental changes. However, few studies have evaluated the genetic structure of restored populations of dominant plants. In this study, we compared genetic variation of the restored populations with the natural ones in Cyclobalanopsis myrsinaefolia, a dominant species of evergreen broadleaved forest. Using eight polymorphic microsatellite loci, we analyzed samples collected from restored populations and the donor population as well as two other natural populations. We compared the genetic diversity of restored and natural populations. Differences in genetic composition were evaluated using measurements of genetic differentia- tion and assignment tests. The mean number of alleles per locus was 4.65. Three parameters (A, AR, and expected heterozygosity) of genetic variation were found to be lower, but not significantly, in the restored populations than they were in the natural populations, indicating a founder effect during the restoration. Significant but low FST (0.061) was observed over all loci, indicating high gene flow among populations, as expected from its wind-pollination. Differentiation between the two restored populations was smallest. However, differences between the donor population and the restored populations were higher than those between other natural populations and the restored populations. Only 13.5% and 25.7% individuals in the two restored populations were assigned to the donor population, but 54.1 and 40% were assigned to another natural population. The genetic variation of the donor population was lowest, and geographic distances from the restoration sites to the donor site were much higher than the other natural populations, indicating that the present donor likely was not the best donor for these ecological restoration efforts. However, no deleterious consequences might be observed in restored popula- tions due to high observed heterozygosity and high gene flow. This study demonstrates that during the restoration process, genetic structures of the restored populations may be biased from the donor population. The results also highlight population genetic knowl- edge, especially of gene flow-limited species, in ecological restoration.

English

In the Upper-Silesian Coal Basin southern Poland large areas of coal mine waste heaps, riverbanks and shoulders of transportation routes built of coal mine waste are biologically restored by the initiation of soil-forming processes. The purpose of this research was to determine, using laboratory research and observation in situ (field), some physical and chemical properties of mixtures of topsoil composed the forming process (coal mine waste and sewage sludge), before placing them on the coal mine waste heaps and riverbanks, and after a period of 1- 3 years, when the layer has been fully penetrated by root mass. Adequate physical properties of topsoil the process of forming mixtures protect the spoil-banks against erosion. Poor water retention ability should be taken into consideration when selecting the plants for biological restoration. High levels of macro components and increased sorption guarantee long and appropriate supply of nutrients. The application of analysed soil-forming mixtures for biological restoration of coal mine waste heaps and spoil-banks, along with proper selection of plants, assist maintaining a durable, self-sustaining ecosystem.

When is restoration not?: Incorporating landscape-scale processes to restore self-sustaining ecosystems in coastal wetland restoration

With increasing restoration initiatives for coastal wetlands, the question of ‘What are we restoring to?’ becomes more pressing. The goal of this paper is to explore restoration concepts, examples, and challenges from the Pacific and Gulf coasts. One of the fundamental concepts explored is change over time – either in the controlling processes or the restoration structure – and how such changes can be meshed with the goals of various restoration efforts. We subsequently review the concepts of ecosystem trajectories, alternative restoration approaches, and the ideal attributes of functional self-sustaining restoration in the context of realities of restoration planning, design, and implementation. These realities include the dynamics of the ecosystems being restored, very real constraints that are imposed by the contemporary physical and human landscape, and the need to plan for the long term development of restoration sites recognizing that both project performance and expectations may change over time.

(162) Edible Fungal Growth and Fruiting on Composted Containerized Inedible Crop Biomass

Current goals for space exploration are predicated upon long-term manned space flights and colonization of planetary habitats. Long periods in space without payloads of necessary items from Earth require the development of a self-sustaining ecosystem that will allow astronauts to grow their own food and efficiently recycle the waste products. Crops suggested for growth in space include wheat, rice, carrots, soybean, mushrooms, etc. Optimal and rapid biodegradation of lignin and other cellulosic material of crop residues by candidate edible white rot fungal strains is paramount in the use of these organisms to achieve effective biomass recycling in an advanced life support system (ALS). The incorporation of organic N into the substrate and pairing crop residues may enhance growth and fruiting of the edible fungi, thus increasing the rate of biodegradation of the substrates and biomass recycling. We investigated the mycelial growth of two strains of Pleurotusostreatus (`Grey Dover' and `Blue Dolphin') on processed single vegetative residues of soybean, cowpea, tomato, sweetpotato, or their 1:1 combination with wheat or rice straw. Growth and fruiting of the two strains including another strain (`Pohu') on rice straw mixed with solid thermophilic aerobic reactor (STAR) effluent for degradation and recycling were also studied. Mycelial growth and fruiting in `Grey Dover' and `Blue Dolphin' were significantly repressed on sweetpotato and basil; however, growth of the two strains was improved when sweetpotato and basil substrates were paired with rice or wheat straw. Fruiting was prolific in paired combinations of soybean with wheat or rice straw. High concentration of STAR residue enhanced mycelial growth; however, a relatively lower concentration was required for abundant fruiting.

Short Note

Using process‐orientated parameters to assess degradation.

Threshold-based resource management: a framework for comprehensive ecosystem management.

The problems posed by adaptive management for improved ecosystem health are reviewed. Other kinds of science-informed ecosystem management are needed for those regions of conflict between rapid human population growth, increased resource extraction, and the rising demand for better environmental amenities, where large-scale experiments are not feasible. One new framework is threshold-based resource management. Threshold-based resource management guides management choices among four major science and engineering approaches to achieve healthier ecosystems: self-sustaining ecosystem management, adaptive management, case-by-case resource management, and high-reliability management. As resource conflicts increase over a landscape (i.e., as the ecosystems in the landscape move through different thresholds), management options change for the environmental decision-maker in terms of what can and cannot be attained by way of ecosystem health. The major policy and management implication of the framework is that the exclusive use or recommendation of any one management regime, be it self-sustaining, adaptive, case-by-case, or high-reliability management, across all categories of ecosystems within a heterogeneous landscape that is variably populated and extractively used is not only inappropriate, it is fatal to the goals of improved ecosystem health. The article concludes with detailed proposals for environmental decision-makers to undertake "bandwidth management" in ways that blend the best of adaptive management and high-reliability management for improved ecosystem health while at the same time maintaining highly reliable flows of ecosystem services, such as water.

Creating Soil-like Materials For Plant Growth Using Tailings Sand And Fine Tails

Abstract A major challenge in the reclamation of oil sands processing residues is the re-establishment of self-sustaining ecosystems. The primary task is to develop a technology using these residues to create soil-like materials capable of supporting stable plant and microbial communities. Aggregates (stable agglomerates of mineral particles and organic matter between 0.1 – 10 mm in diameter) can enhance the physical environment of the resulting soil to facilitate the establishment of these communities, and to expedite the process of natural soil structure development. A procedure was developed to artificially create aggregates using oil sands processing residues, namely tailings sand (TS), mature fine tails (MFT), and composite tails (CT). The clay and water contents played critical roles in the success of the aggregation process. The resulting aggregates had a loam texture, met the size distribution criteria, and were relatively stable. These properties would make them suitable for use as a plant growth medium. Introduction Surface mining and water-based extraction of the oil sands in northeastern Alberta have generated large volumes of tailings sand and fine tails. Tailings slurry from the extraction plants contains significant quantities of water, residual bitumen, and coarsegrained and fine-grained materials, all of which are pumped into large settling ponds. The coarse-grained tailings sand quickly settles out to form the dykes and beaches. Much of the fine-grained materials (silts and clays) and residual bitumen precipitate to form an accreting layer which consolidates very slowly. When consolidation reaches 30% solids by weight (one - two years), the resulting deposit is known as "mature fine tails." Currently some 350 million cubic metres of fine tails have been produced and are being stored in large tailings ponds. It is possible that mature fine tails accumulating in the ponds will exceed a billion cubic metres in the ponds by the year 2025. Recent research to accelerate the consolidation process of mature fine tails has resulted in the development of a treatment method which involves the addition of gypsum (calcium sulphate) to a fine-enriched tailings slurry. The calcium in the gypsum replaces the sodium in the clays of the mature fine tails, resulting in a very rapid release of water (approximately 25% of the volume of the mature fine tails within a few days). The consolidated dense material, now with a solid content of approximately 80% by weight, is termed "composite tails." One of the major challenges in the reclamation of these residues is the establishment of self-sustaining ecosystems. The primary task is to develop a technology using the oil sands processing residues to artificially create soil-like materials capable of supporting a stable plant community. The desirable characteristics for such materials include:ability to supply sufficient water and nutrients within the root zone for plant growth;providing a physically stable medium for plant growth and be resistant to soil erosion; anda chemically and biologically active medium to buffer the effects of changing environment on plants and soil micro-organisms(1).

Rubber, a Unique Crop: The Mature Hevea Stand as a Nutritionally Self-sustaining Ecosystem in Relation to Latex Yield, by K. Sivanadyan, H. Ghandimathie & G. Haridas. X + 54 pp. Kuala Lumpur: Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia (1995).

Rubber, a Unique Crop: The Mature Hevea Stand as a Nutritionally Self-sustaining Ecosystem in Relation to Latex Yield, by K. Sivanadyan, H. Ghandimathie & G. Haridas. X + 54 pp. Kuala Lumpur: Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia (1995). - Volume 126 Issue 4