Self-reported Peer Victimization Research Articles

The contribution of chronic peer victimization in elementary school to depressive symptoms in adolescence.

Throughout his career, John Schulenberg challenged us to understand adolescent development as the confluence of distal and proximal experiences along with critical transitions. Heeding this call, we examined whether chronic childhood peer victimization predicted adolescents' depressive symptoms via early-emerging depression growth trajectories, continued victimization into adolescence, and stress-amplification at the middle school transition. Self-reported depressive symptoms and teacher-reported and self-reported peer victimization were obtained from 636 youth (338 girls; Mage = 7.96 years, 66.7% White, 21.7% Black, 11.6% other) in the 2nd-9th grades. Latent growth curve analyses revealed that, by 7th grade, chronic childhood peer victimization was associated with depressive symptoms only through an indirect association with peer victimization in adolescence, underscoring how interrelated historical and ongoing interpersonal stressors contribute to adolescent psychopathology.

Temporal relation between pubertal development and peer victimization in a prospective sample of US adolescents.

Peer victimization typically peaks in early adolescence, leading researchers to hypothesize that pubertal timing is a meaningful predictor of peer victimization. However, previous methodological approaches have limited our ability to parse out which puberty cues are associated with peer victimization because gonadal and adrenal puberty, two independent processes, have either been conflated or adrenal puberty timing has been ignored. In addition, previous research has overlooked the possibility of reverse causality-that peer victimization might drive pubertal timing, as it has been shown to do in non-human primates. To fill these gaps, we followed 265 adolescents (47% female) prospectively across three-time points (Mage : T1 = 9.6, T2 = 12.0, T3 = 14.4) and measured self-report peer victimization and self- and maternal-report of gonadal and adrenal pubertal development on the Pubertal Development Scale. Multilevel modeling revealed that females who were further along in adrenal puberty at age 9 were more likely to report peer victimization at age 12 (Cohen's d = 0.25, p = .005). The relation between gonadal puberty status and peer victimization was not significant for either sex. In terms of the reverse direction, the relation between early peer victimization and later pubertal development was not significant in either sex. Overall, our findings suggest that adrenal puberty status, but not gonadal puberty status, predicted peer victimization in females, highlighting the need to separate gonadal and adrenal pubertal processes in future studies.

Sibling and peer bullying victimization in adolescence: Masculinity, femininity, and the moderating role of sex and popularity.

We investigated whether gender-typed traits (masculinity and femininity) contemporaneously predicted self-reported peer victimization, peer-reported peer victimization, and sibling victimization. We also tested the moderating role of sex and popularity. A sample of 2782 British pupils aged 11-16 from Central England, UK was screened for bullying involvement and popularity using self-report and peer nominations, and a subsample of 704 (52.7% girls) completed a measure of gender-typed traits (masculinity and femininity). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that low levels of masculine traits were associated with greater risk of self-reported peer victimization, there were no associations with peer-reported peer victimization, and low levels of feminine traits were associated with greater risk of self-reported sibling victimization. The effects were not moderated by sex, while popularity decreased the risk of self- and peer-reported peer victimization. Bullying prevention interventions could benefit from including the positive facets of feminine and masculine traits.

Student Engagement as a Mediator Process Between Peer Victimization and Achievement at the Beginning of Middle School.

Very few studies have properly identified how peer victimization is associated with lower achievement in middle or high school. In this context, this study examined how peer victimization at the beginning of middle school is linked with subsequent student achievement. Specifically, it assessed if the behavioral, affective, and cognitive dimensions of engagement in school play a mediation role in the relationship between peer victimization and student achievement. The sample of this study included 683 seventh graders attending 3 schools in Montreal, Canada. Students self-reported peer victimization at the beginning and end of grade 7. They also reported their levels of student engagement on the 3 dimensions (behavioral, affective, and cognitive) across 3 time points in seventh and eighth grades. Student achievement in language arts across these 2 years was also obtained through school records. Peer victimization significantly predicted lower achievement over time (b = -.24, p ≤ .001). Peer victimization predicted lower achievement in grade 8 indirectly through affective student engagement (b = -.11, p < .05). Post hoc analyses showed that peer victimization still predicted lower achievement in grade 8 indirectly through a decrease in affective engagement (b = -.14, p < .05). However, when considered alone, a decrease in cognitive engagement also acted as a mediator (b = -.09, p < .05), suggesting a strong link with affective engagement. Our findings expose the importance to promote student engagement in school and achievement for victimized youth.

Associations between epigenetic aging and childhood peer victimization, depression, and suicidal ideation in adolescence and adulthood: A study of two population-based samples.

Background: Prior studies indicate that peer victimization (including bullying) is associated with higher risk for depression and suicidal ideation across the life course. However, molecular mechanisms underlying these associations remain unclear. This two-cohort study proposes to test whether epigenetic aging and pace of aging, as well as a DNA methylation marker of responsive to glucocorticoids, are associated to childhood peer victimization and later depressive symptoms, or suicidal ideation. Methods: Cohort 1: Epigenome-wide DNA methylation (EPIC array) was measured in saliva collected when participants were 10.47years (standard deviation = 0.35) in a subsample of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD, n = 149 participants), with self-reported peer victimization at 6-8years, depressive symptoms (mean symptoms, and dichotomized top 30% symptoms) and suicidal ideation at 15-17years. Cohort 2: Epigenome-wide DNA methylation (EPIC array) was measured in blood collected from participants aged 45.13years (standard deviation = 0.37) in a subsample of the 1958 British Birth cohort (1958BBC, n = 238 participants) with information on mother-reported peer victimization at 7-11years, self-reported depressive symptoms at 50years, and suicidal ideation at 45years. Five epigenetic indices were derived: three indicators of epigenetic aging [Horvath's pan-tissue (Horvath1), Horvath's Skin-and-Blood (Horvath2), Pediatric-Buccal-Epigenetic age (PedBE)], pace of aging (DunedinPACE), and stress response reactivity (Epistress). Results: Peer victimization was not associated with the epigenetic indices in either cohort. In the QLSCD, higher PedBE epigenetic aging and a slower pace of aging as measured by DunedinPACE predicted higher depressive symptoms scores. In contrast, neither the Horvath1, or Horvath2 epigenetic age estimates, nor the Epistress score were associated with depressive symptoms in either cohort, and none of the epigenetic indices predicted suicidal ideation. Conclusion: The findings are consistent with epigenome-wide and candidate gene studies suggesting that these epigenetic indices did not relate to peer victimization, challenging the hypothesis that cumulative epigenetic aging indices could translate vulnerability to depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation following peer victimization. Since some indices of epigenetic aging and pace of aging signaled higher risk for depressive symptoms, future studies should pursue this investigation to further evaluate the robustness and generalization of these preliminary findings.

Gene-Environment Interplay Linking Peer Victimization With Adolescents’ Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms

ObjectiveThis study examined to what extent genetic and environmental factors explain—either additively or interactively with peer victimization—different trajectories of adolescents’ depressive symptoms and whether genetic factors related to distinct trajectories are correlated with peer victimization. MethodParticipants included 902 twins (52% girls) who self-reported peer victimization and depressive symptoms in grades 6, 7, 8, 9, and 11. ResultsGrowth mixture modeling revealed 3 trajectories of depressive symptoms: low (69.2% of participants), increasing (19.5%), and high-decreasing-increasing (11.3%). Biometric modeling showed that, for both sexes, genetic factors explained roughly half (52.6%, 47.5%) of the probability of following either a low or an increasing trajectory. Genetic influences (41%) were also observed for the high-decreasing-increasing trajectory, albeit only for girls. Nonshared environmental influences explained the remaining variances, along with shared environmental influences (27%) on the high-decreasing-increasing trajectory. Only for the low and the increasing trajectories, nonshared environmental influences increased with more frequent peer victimization (blow = 0.206, 95% CI [0.094, 0.325]; bincreasing = 0.246, 95% CI [0.143, 0.356]). Moreover, peer victimization was associated with a lower probability of a low trajectory and a higher probability of an increasing or high-decreasing-increasing trajectory, and these associations were mostly explained by common underlying genetic factors. ConclusionYouth expressing (partly inherited) depressive symptoms may be at risk of peer victimization. However, increasing depressive symptoms in victims may be mitigated by other environmental factors except for those who enter adolescence with already high levels of depressive symptoms.

Mental health comorbidities following peer victimization across childhood and adolescence: a 20-year longitudinal study.

Peer victimization is associated with a wide range of mental health problems in youth, yet few studies described its association with mental health comorbidities. To test the association between peer victimization timing and intensity and mental health comorbidities, we used data from 1216 participants drawn from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, a population-based birth cohort. Peer victimization was self-reported at ages 6-17 years, and modeled as four trajectory groups: low, childhood-limited, moderate adolescence-emerging, and high-chronic. The outcomes were the number and the type of co-occurring self-reported mental health problems at age 20 years. Associations were estimated using negative binomial and multinomial logistic regression models and adjusted for parent, family, and child characteristics using propensity score inverse probability weights. Youth in all peer victimization groups had higher rates of co-occurring mental health problems and higher likelihood of comorbid internalizing-externalizing problems [odds ratios ranged from 2.06, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.52-2.79 for childhood-limited to 4.34, 95% CI 3.15-5.98 for high-chronic victimization] compared to those in the low victimization group. The strength of these associations was highest for the high-chronic group, followed by moderate adolescence-emerging and childhood-limited groups. All groups also presented higher likelihood of internalizing-only problems relative to the low peer victimization group. Irrespective of timing and intensity, self-reported peer victimization was associated with mental health comorbidities in young adulthood, with the strongest associations observed for high-chronic peer victimization. Tackling peer victimization, especially when persistent over time, could play a role in reducing severe and complex mental health problems in youth.

Reciprocal Links Between Teacher-Student Relationships and Peer Victimization: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study in Early Adolescence.

Although teachers play a central role in tackling peer victimization at school, no study so far has investigated transactional associations between positive and negative teacher-student relationship dimensions and peer victimization in early adolescence. Investigating both dimensions simultaneously in upper elementary school allows to examine differential effects on peer victimization (and vice versa) and could aid tailored prevention and intervention efforts. At three time points within one school year, self-reported teacher-student closeness and conflict and self- and peer-reported peer victimization were assessed in a sample of 930 fourth to sixth grade students (Mage = 10.55 years, 53.1% girls). Cross-lagged models revealed negative within-time associations between closeness and self-reported peer victimization, and positive within-time associations between conflict and self-reported peer victimization at most time points. Whereas closeness and conflict negatively predicted each other across the school year, no bidirectional longitudinal effects were found between teacher-student relationships and peer victimization. The current findings highlight the need for early prevention and intervention efforts to tackle peer victimization, build positive teacher-student relationships, and especially reduce negative teacher-student relationships.

Victims Become Covert Aggressors: Gender Differences in the Mediating Effects of Rumination on Anger and Sadness

This longitudinal study examined the link between peer victimization and relational aggression by testing the mediating roles of sadness and anger rumination, with attention to gender differences, among Chinese adolescents. Survey measures were administrated to 2,152 junior middle school students at two time points, one year apart. The results found that self-reported peer victimization (but not peer-nominated victimization) positively predicted relational aggression one year later, and this link was completely mediated by sadness and anger rumination. Specifically, perceived peer victimization exerted a positive influence on both sadness and anger rumination, thereby increasing adolescents’ tendency to exhibit relational aggression one year later. Furthermore, victimized boys’ elevated relational aggression was predominantly accounted for by their high sadness rumination, whereas victimized girls’ elevated relational aggression was mainly due to their great anger rumination. Such a gender-difference suggests that interventions to reduce adolescents’ externalizing problems may be most effective when tailored to each gender specifically.

Peer Victimization and Depressive Symptoms During Adolescence: Examining the Roles of Social Support and Internalizing Coping

The purpose of this study was to examine how two coping strategies together moderate the relationship between peer victimization and adjustment among young adolescents. Sixth-grade adolescents from California, Oregon, and Wisconsin ( N = 1,058) self-reported peer victimization, depressive symptoms, and their utilization of social support seeking and internalizing coping. A regression analysis showed a significant three-way interaction between peer victimization, internalizing coping, and social support seeking in predicting depressive symptoms. Further analyses revealed that social support seeking only buffered the negative effects of peer victimization for participants who scored high on internalizing coping. Despite mean-level gender differences in these variables, gender did not moderate this association, suggesting that social support is an effective buffer against depressive symptoms following peer victimization for both boys and girls. These results suggest that attending to the variety of coping strategies adolescents employ simultaneously will help further our understanding of peer victimization outcomes.

Early Childhood Factors Associated With Peer Victimization Trajectories From 6 to 17 Years of Age.

To describe (1) the developmental trajectories of peer victimization from 6 to 17 years of age and (2) the early childhood behaviors and family characteristics associated with the trajectories. We used data from 1760 children enrolled in the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, a population-based birth cohort. Participants self-reported peer victimization at ages 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, and 17 years. Participants' behavior and family characteristics were measured repeatedly between ages 5 months and 5 years. We identified 4 trajectories of peer victimization from 6 to 17 years of age: low (32.9%), moderate-emerging (29.8%), childhood-limited (26.2%), and high-chronic (11.1%). Compared with children in the low peer victimization trajectory, children in the other 3 trajectories were more likely to exhibit externalizing behaviors in early childhood, and those in the high-chronic and moderate-emerging trajectories were more likely to be male. Paternal history of antisocial behavior was associated with moderate-emerging (odds ratio [OR] = 1.54; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.09-2.19) and high-chronic (OR = 1.93; 95% CI = 1.25-2.99) relative to low peer victimization. Living in a nonintact family in early childhood was associated with childhood-limited (OR = 1.48; 95% CI = 1.11-1.97) and high-chronic (OR = 1.59; 95% CI = 1.09-2.31) relative to low peer victimization. Early childhood externalizing behaviors and family vulnerabilities were associated with the development of peer victimization. Some children entered the cascade of persistent peer victimization at the beginning of primary school. Support to these children and their families early in life should be an important component of peer victimization preventive interventions.

Social Risk and Internalizing Distress in Middle Childhood: The Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation Processes

This study examined whether the relation between peer victimization or rejection and internalizing distress (anxiety and depressive symptoms) was moderated by emotion regulation processes in a sample of elementary schoolers. Analyses were based on a sample of 476 third and fourth-grade children (M = 9.16 years). Data were collected in the fall and spring of one academic year. Peer-reported victimization and rejection were assessed through a peer nomination inventory. Child-reported victimization, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and emotion regulation were assessed via self-report measures. Findings from multiple group path models provided evidence that girls scoring higher on peer rejection and boys scoring higher on peer-reported relational victimization reported fewer depressive symptoms in the spring when scoring lower on expressive suppression (girls: β = 0.157, SE = 0.067, p = 0.019; boys: β = 0.239, SE = 0.099, p = 0.016). Alternatively, boys scoring higher on self-reported peer victimization in the fall reported fewer anxiety symptoms in the spring when scoring higher on expressive suppression (β = −0.260, SE = 0.117, p = 0.027) or lower on cognitive reappraisal (β = 0.246, SE = 0.097, p = 0.011). Boys’ peer-reported victimization emerged as a positive predictor of anxiety in the spring, but only at high levels of cognitive reappraisal (β = 0.284, SE = 0.128, p = 0.026). Results suggest that expressing emotion is a useful process for reducing depressive symptoms in rejected girls and relationally victimized boys. For boys, suppressing emotion may reduce the risk for developing anxiety as a consequence of peer victimization. Results suggest cognitive reappraisal is not an effective strategy for reducing anxiety in boys as a consequence of peer victimization. This study helps inform our understanding of the role of emotion regulation in relation between peer relationship difficulties and internalizing distress.

Effects of Students’ Grade Level, Gender, and Form of Bullying Victimization on Coping Strategy Effectiveness

Bullying victimization is a pervasive problem nationwide and is related to students’ psychological distress, including increased loneliness, anxiety, depression, helplessness, and suicidal behaviors. Importantly, not all students respond to peer victimization in the same way. This study examined the effectiveness of students’ coping strategies in response to bullying as a function of their grade level, gender, and form of victimization. Students in grades five through twelve (N = 2627) completed surveys assessing coping strategy effectiveness and associated emotional distress related to self-reported peer victimization. In general, findings indicated that the most effective coping strategies in response to bullying victimization were support-seeking strategies, use of humor, and cognitive restructuring. However, effectiveness for all strategies (with the exception of peer support) varied by grade level, gender, and form of victimization. Strategies were also more effective for relational victimization than they were for physical victimization. Moreover, although students identified several effective coping strategies, only the use of cognitive restructuring was related to lower levels of associated emotional distress, an important component of effective coping. As such, bullying prevention programs should target students’ psychological processes in developing effective interventions. Implications for prevention and intervention efforts are discussed.

Connecting Childhood Wariness to Adolescent Social Anxiety through the Brain and Peer Experiences.

Wariness in early childhood manifests as shy, inhibited behavior in novel social situations and is associated with increased risk for developing social anxiety. In youth with childhood wariness, exposure to a potent social stressor, such as peer victimization, may potentiate brain-based sensitivity to unpredictable social contexts, thereby increasing risk for developing social anxiety. To test brain-based associations between early childhood wariness, self-reported peer victimization, and current social anxiety symptoms, we quantified neural responses to different social contexts in low- and high-victimized pre-adolescents with varying levels of early childhood wariness. Measures of early childhood wariness were obtained annually from ages 2-to-7-years. At age 11, participants were characterized as having low (N = 20) or high (N = 27) peer victimization. To index their neural responses to peer evaluation, participants completed an fMRI-based Virtual School paradigm (Jarcho et al. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 21-31, 2013a). In highly victimized, relative to low-victimized participants, wariness was differentially related to right amygdala response based on the valence and predictability of peer evaluation. More specifically, in highly victimized participants, wariness was associated with greater right amygdala response to unpredictably positive peer evaluation. Effects of wariness were not observed in participants who reported low levels of victimization. Moreover, in victimized participants, high wariness and right amygdala response to unpredictably positive peer evaluation was associated with more severe social anxiety symptoms. Results can be interpreted using a diathesis-stress model, which suggests that neural response to unexpectedly positive social feedback is a mechanism by which exposure to peer victimization potentiates the risk for developing social anxiety in individuals exhibiting high levels of early childhood wariness.

Bullying the Brain? Longitudinal Links Between Childhood Peer Victimization, Cortisol, and Adolescent Brain Structure.

Background: Childhood peer victimization is a stressful life experience associated with long-lasting adverse psychological consequences. While there is some evidence that victimization is associated with alterations in brain function, little is known about effects on brain structure. This study explored the relationships between childhood peer victimization, cortisol, and adolescent ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) structure in a sample of healthy children.Methods: A total of 50 (Mage = 9.29 years at baseline) children participated in this longitudinal study. We examined whether diurnal cortisol levels (assessed at baseline) moderated the link between children’s self-reported peer victimization (assessed at baseline) and vlPFC surface area, gray matter volume, and thickness 5 years later.Results: For boys, cortisol levels moderated the association between victimization and brain structure. For boys with a low daily cortisol output (assessed as area under the curve; AUC), high victimization was associated with a smaller right vlPFC surface area, and for boys with a high AUC, high victimization was associated with a larger right vlPFC surface area. In addition, for boys with a steeper diurnal slope, high victimization was associated with a smaller right vlPFC surface area, and for boys with a low flatter diurnal slope, high victimization was associated with a larger right vlPFC surface area.Conclusion: These results indicate the differential influence of cortisol on the relationship between victimization and brain structure. Findings suggest that victimization may have differential effects on brain development in boys who are more versus less biologically sensitive to stress.

Peer Victimization and Mental Health Risk in Chilean Students

Children who exhibit mental health problems are more likely to be targets of peer victimization. However, little is known about how mental health risk interacts with other individual and school-level factors in this relationship. In the current study, we explored the associations between peer victimization and mental health in 10,532 Chilean sixth grade students attending 405 of the lower SES schools in the country. Children were screened for mental health and classroom adaptation problems using standardized parent and teacher rating scales at the beginning of the school year, and completed questionnaires on self-reported peer victimization, classroom climate, and school climate at the end of the year, as part of an ongoing national school mental health program, which includes monitoring for school violence and school climate. Data were analyzed through logistic regression and multilevel analyses, incorporating sex, absenteeism due to physical health, school attendance, and individual SES as covariates. Results showed that the odds of being victimized by peers were five times greater for students who were identified at risk for mental health problems based on parent reports, and one time greater for students identified by teachers with attention and concentration difficulties. However, multilevel analyses showed that the relative contribution of mental health risk to peer victimization significantly diminished when other individual and school-level variables were included. Particularly relevant was the contribution of individual SES, classroom climate, and absenteeism due to physical health; and of school-level SES. These findings suggest the complex nature of the influence of mental health on peer victimization and the relevance of the social context interacting with student’s mental health problems.

Longitudinal associations between depression symptoms and peer experiences: Evidence of symptoms-driven pathways

Although most studies suggest that depression is a consequence of poor treatment by peers, these studies have often failed to consider alternative models. We compared the interpersonal risk model (poor peer relations leading to depression), the symptoms-driven model (depression leading to poor peer relations), and the transactional model (depression and poor peer relations sharing a bidirectional association) using a multi-informant cascade modelling approach. Data were collected annually from 703 youth and their parents beginning in grade 5 (age 10–11) and concluding in grade 12 (age 17–18). Accounting for within and across time associations, a symptoms-driven model was replicated across parent- and self-reported depression symptoms in predicting later perceived peer rejection. This relation was stronger during school transition than later years. Self-reported depression symptoms also predicted self-reported peer victimization. This study adds to a growing literature demonstrating the need to consider different models as depression symptoms can precede peer relations difficulties.

Associations Between Adolescents' Weight and Maladjustment Differ With Deviation From Weight Norms in Social Contexts.

In line with the reflected self-appraisal hypothesis, previous research finds associations between weight and maladjustment are strongest when there is a mismatch between individuals' weight and the weight norm of their social contexts. However, research has not considered associations in more proximal social contexts. We examined differences in associations between weight and maladjustment for 2 proximal social contexts: grade-level peers and friendship groups. We used sixth-graders (N = 565; Mage = 12 years) self-reported height and weight (used to calculate body mass index (BMI) z-score), experiences of peer victimization, and depressive symptoms. Deviation from the normative weight was calculated as the students' BMI z-score minus the average BMI z-score for the context (grade-level peers or friendship group). Considering deviations from grade-level peers, greater BMI z-scores were associated with more self-reported peer victimization only for students above the weight norm. For the friendship group, greater weight was associated with more self-reported depressive symptoms only for those who were above the normative weight. Being heavier during adolescence may be especially problematic for students who differ from the norm in their proximal social contexts. Intervention efforts focused on weight and maladjustment may want to consider the contexts involved in adolescents' self-appraisals.

Risk Factors Associated with Peer Victimization and Bystander Behaviors among Adolescent Students

Despite the prevalence of the phenomena of peer victimization and bystander behaviors, little data has generated to describe their relationships and risk factors. In this paper, a self-administered survey using a cross-sectional cluster-random sampling method in a sample of 5450 participants (2734 girls and 2716 boys) between 4th and 11th grades was conducted at six schools (two primary schools and four middle schools) located in Shantou, China. Self-reported peer victimization, bystander behaviors and information regarding parents’ risky behaviors and individual behavioral factors were collected. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was applied to evaluate risk factors affecting peer victimization and bystander behaviors. The results indicated that urban participants were more likely to become bullying victims but less likely to become passive bystanders. Contrarily, bullying victimization was related to the increasing of passive bystander behaviors. Father drinking and mother smoking as independent factors were risk factors for peer victimization. Participants who were smoking or drinking had a tendency to be involved in both peer victimization and passive bystander behaviors. This study suggested that bystander behaviors, victims’ and parents’ educations play a more important role in peer victimization than previously thought.

Disparities in Depressive Symptoms Between Heterosexual and Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youth in a Dutch Cohort: The TRAILS Study.

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth experience elevated levels of depressive symptoms compared to heterosexual youth. This study examined how differences in depressive symptoms between heterosexual and LGB youth developed from late childhood to early adulthood. The association between sexual orientation and depressive symptoms was estimated from age 11 to 22 using data from the TRacking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey, a longitudinal Dutch cohort study. Of the 1738 respondents (54.8 % girls) that provided information on sexual orientation, 151 self-identified as LGB. In line with the Minority Stress Framework, it was tested whether self-reported peer victimization and parental rejection mediated the association between sexual orientation and depressive symptoms. Results indicated that LB girls and bisexuals were at increased risk of depressive symptoms already at age 11. The difference increased over time and was related to pubertal development in girls and bisexual individuals. Furthermore, self-reported peer victimization (for both boys and girls), as well as parental rejection (for girls/bisexuals), mediated the association between sexual orientation and depressive symptoms. The authors conclude that already in late childhood, associations between sexual orientation and depressive symptoms are found, partly due to minority stress mechanisms.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0403-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.