Self-reported Hunger Research Articles

Loneliness predicts postprandial ghrelin and hunger in women

Loneliness is strongly linked to poor health. Recent research suggests that appetite dysregulation provides one potential pathway through which loneliness and other forms of social disconnection influence health. Obesity may alter the link between loneliness and appetite-relevant hormones, one unexplored possibility. We examined the relationships between loneliness and both postmeal ghrelin and hunger, and tested whether these links differed for people with a higher versus lower body mass index (BMI; kg/m2). During this double-blind randomized crossover study, women (N=42) ate a high saturated fat meal at the beginning of one full-day visit and a high oleic sunflower oil meal at the beginning of the other. Loneliness was assessed once with a commonly used loneliness questionnaire. Ghrelin was sampled before the meal and postmeal at 2 and 7h. Self-reported hunger was measured before the meal, immediately postmeal, and then 2, 4, and 7h later. Lonelier women had larger postprandial ghrelin and hunger increases compared with less lonely women, but only among participants with a lower BMI. Loneliness and postprandial ghrelin and hunger were unrelated among participants with a higher BMI. These effects were consistent across both meals. These data suggest that ghrelin, an important appetite-regulation hormone, and hunger may link loneliness to weight gain and its corresponding negative health effects among non-obese people.

Sweet/dessert foods are more appealing to adolescents after sleep restriction.

Study ObjectiveExamine the effect of experimental sleep restriction (SR) on adolescents’ subjective hunger and perceived appeal of sweet/dessert foods versus other foods. A secondary goal was to replicate previous findings on the effects of SR on dietary intake.DesignRandomized cross-over sleep restriction-extension paradigm.SettingSleep was obtained and monitored at home. Outcome measures were gathered during office visits.Participants31 typically-developing adolescents aged 14–17 years.InterventionsThe three-week protocol consisted of a baseline week, followed randomly by five consecutive nights of SR (6.5 hours in bed) versus healthy sleep duration (HS; 10 hours in bed), a 2-night wash-out period, and a 5-night cross-over.MeasurementsSleep was monitored via actigraphy. The morning after each experimental condition, teens rated their hunger, underwent a 24-hour diet recall interview, and rated the appeal of a series of pictures of sweet/dessert foods (e.g., ice cream, candy) and non-sweets (meat, eggs, fruits, vegetables).ResultsTeens rated pictures of sweet/dessert foods to be more appealing after SR than after HS (Cohen’s d = .41, t = 2.07, p = .045). The sleep manipulation did not affect self-reported hunger or the appeal of non-sweet foods (p >.10). Consistent with our prior work, intake of overall calories was 11% higher and consumption of sweet/dessert servings was 52% greater during SR than HS.ConclusionsAdolescent SR appears to increase the subjective appeal of sweet/dessert foods, indicating a potential mechanism by which SR might contribute to weight gain and the risk for obesity and chronic illness.

The Impact of Psychological Support on Psychological Outcomes and Patients’ Experiences of the Bariatric Service 1 and 2 Years after Bariatric Surgery

Background: Although bariatric surgery is widely considered the most effective form of obesity management, some patients receiving surgery describe how their psychological issues remain neglected. This study evaluated the impact of additional psychological support (a Bariatric Rehabilitation Service (BRS)) on patients’ psychological outcomes at 12 months and their experiences of the bariatric service at 24 months. Methods: Patients were randomised to receive either usual care or the BRS and rated a range of psychological outcomes at 12 months. Completed psychological data was obtained from 70 patients (usual care: n=32; BRS: n=38). At 24 months post surgery patients (n=68) gave written feedback regarding the content and timing of their experiences and a sub group (n=16) took part in telephone interviews about their experiences of the bariatric service they had received. Results: By 12 months those who received the BRS reported greater improvement in their psychological outcomes compared to the usual care group in terms of vigour (p=0.02, eta2=0.08), approach coping (p=0.04, eta2=0.06), quality of life (p=0.04, eta2=0.06) and self-reported hunger (p=0.05, eta2=0.05). By 24 months a large majority of those who had received the BRS reported satisfaction with the service’s timing and content. However the majority of all patients, regardless of condition, reported wanting further psychological support up to 24 months post-operatively. A minority, however, stated that as their problems were not emotional the additional support was unnecessary. Conclusion: The BRS resulted in some small improvements in psychological outcomes. Psychological support before and after surgery could be delivered in relation to individual patient need rather than as a blanket provision. Further research is needed to determine both the timing of such support and to identify those who would show most benefit.

A systematic review and meta-analysis examining the effect of eating rate on energy intake and hunger

Reductions in eating rate are recommended to prevent and treat obesity; yet, the relation between eating rate and energy intake has not been systematically reviewed, with studies producing mixed results. Our main objective was to examine how experimentally manipulated differences in eating rate influence concurrent energy intake and subjective hunger ratings. We systematically reviewed studies that experimentally manipulated eating rate and measured concurrent food intake, self-reported hunger, or both. We combined effect estimates from studies by using inverse variance meta-analysis, calculating the standardized mean difference (SMD) in food intake between fast and slow eating rate conditions. Twenty-two studies were eligible for inclusion. Evidence indicated that a slower eating rate was associated with lower energy intake in comparison to a faster eating rate (random-effects SMD: 0.45; 95% CI: 0.25, 0.65; P < 0.0001). Subgroup analysis indicated that the effect was consistent regardless of the type of manipulation used to alter eating rate, although there was a large amount of heterogeneity between studies. There was no significant relation between eating rate and hunger at the end of the meal or up to 3.5 h later. Evidence to date supports the notion that eating rate affects energy intake. Research is needed to identify effective interventions to reduce eating rate that can be adopted in everyday life to help limit excess consumption.

Groceries and Gum: Chewing Gum Influences Grocery Store Shopping

Impulse shopping in grocery stores – particularly when hungry – has been shown to encourage purchasing an increased percentage of less healthy food, such as potato chips and other ready-to-eat snacks. If one's craving of these foods could be interrupted or otherwise reduced, it could result in healthier shopping behavior. A lab study and a grocery store field study were conducted. In the lab study, 59 undergraduates were asked to shop at a simulated online grocery store. Half had been given sugarless chewing gum to chew and half were given nothing. A followup was conducted in the field at a small grocery store with 289 adults. We measured number of healthier foods relative to overall food purchases for the first study, and hunger and cravings (on 9-point likert scales) for the second study. In the lab study, those chewing gum selected 21.25% fewer bags of chips and Doritos and 17.89% more fruits and vegetables compared to those who were not chewing gum. The overall ratio of healthier foods to less healthy foods in their shopping basket increased by 14.69% (p = 0.03). The field study results did not yield significant enhancements in the proportion of healthier purchases, however, possibly due to low average purchase quantities. There was, however, a significant reduction in self-reported hunger for chewers (p = .03), as well as directional reductions in self-reported cravings. Chewing gum while shopping appears to lead consumers to select healthier food. In a lab study, gum chewers selected more fruits and vegetables and fewer processed foods, such as potato chips. There is early self-reported evidence that this may occur due to craving reduction.

Increased impulsivity in response to food cues after sleep loss in healthy young men.

ObjectiveTo investigate whether acute total sleep deprivation (TSD) leads to decreased cognitive control when food cues are presented during a task requiring active attention, by assessing the ability to cognitively inhibit prepotent responses.MethodsFourteen males participated in the study on two separate occasions in a randomized, crossover within-subject design: one night of TSD versus normal sleep (8.5 hours). Following each nighttime intervention, hunger ratings and morning fasting plasma glucose concentrations were assessed before performing a go/no-go task.ResultsFollowing TSD, participants made significantly more commission errors when they were presented “no-go” food words in the go/no-go task, as compared with their performance following sleep (+56%; P<0.05). In contrast, response time and omission errors to “go” non-food words did not differ between the conditions. Self-reported hunger after TSD was increased without changes in fasting plasma glucose. The increase in hunger did not correlate with the TSD-induced commission errors.ConclusionsOur results suggest that TSD impairs cognitive control also in response to food stimuli in healthy young men. Whether such loss of inhibition or impulsiveness is food cue-specific as seen in obesity—thus providing a mechanism through which sleep disturbances may promote obesity development—warrants further investigation.

Return of hunger following a relatively high carbohydrate breakfast is associated with earlier recorded glucose peak and nadir

The aim of this study is to test the hypothesis that a breakfast meal with high carbohydrate/low fat results in an earlier increase in postprandial glucose and insulin, a greater decrease below baseline in postprandial glucose, and an earlier return of appetite, compared with a low carbohydrate/high fat meal. Overweight but otherwise healthy adults (n = 64) were maintained on one of two eucaloric diets: high carbohydrate/low fat (HC/LF; 55:27:18% kcals from carbohydrate:fat:protein) versus low carbohydrate/high fat (LC/HF; 43:39:18% kcals from carbohydrate:fat:protein). After 4 weeks of acclimation to the diets, participants underwent a meal test during which circulating glucose and insulin and self-reported hunger and fullness, were measured before and after consumption of breakfast from their assigned diets. The LC/HF meal resulted in a later time at the highest and lowest recorded glucose, higher glucose concentrations at 3 and 4 hours post meal, and lower insulin incremental area under the curve. Participants consuming the LC/HF meal reported lower appetite 3 and 4 hours following the meal, a response that was associated with the timing of the highest and lowest recorded glucose. Modest increases in meal carbohydrate content at the expense of fat content may facilitate weight gain over the long-term by contributing to an earlier rise and fall of postprandial glucose concentrations and an earlier return of appetite.

Effects of whole grain rye crisp bread for breakfast on appetite and energy intake in a subsequent meal: two randomised controlled trails with different amounts of test foods and breakfast energy content.

BackgroundFibre-rich rye products have been shown to have superior effects on self-reported appetite compared to white wheat bread and some studies have shown lower energy intake after subsequent meal. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of whole grain rye crisp bread (RB) versus refined wheat bread (WB) on appetite in two studies using different portion sizes and total energy intakes.MethodsTwo randomised cross-over pre-load studies were conducted in 20 and 21 subjects, respectively. Appetite was rated by visual analogue scale (VAS) for 4 h. In both studies, participants were 39 ± 14 years old and had BMI 23 ± 3. The studies differed in terms of energy content of the breakfasts and proportion of energy from the treatment product as well as amount of test products. Differences between treatments within the two studies were evaluated using mixed models with repeated measures appropriate for cross-over designs.ResultsIn Study one, hunger and desire to eat were significantly lower (P < 0.05) after RB compared with WB, but there were no difference for fullness or difference in energy intake at lunch served ad libitum. In Study two, the portion size was lower than in Study one and the test product constituted a larger proportion of the breakfast. Fullness was significantly higher after RB compared with WB (P < 0.05) and hunger, desire to eat as well as energy intake at lunch were significantly lower (P < 0.05).ConclusionsWhole grain rye crisp bread caused lower self-reported hunger, higher fullness and less desire to eat compared to refined wheat bread. It also led to a lower energy intake after an ad libitum lunch. Results were stronger and/or more consistent when the test meal portion was smaller and accounted for a larger proportion of the total energy intake of the breakfast.

Associations Between BMI and Fat Taste Sensitivity in Humans

The objective of this study was to examine the reliability of associations between fat taste, hunger, dietary fat intake, and body mass index (BMI). Detection thresholds for oleic acid (OA) were obtained during each of 7 consecutive visits using a modified staircase procedure. Participants were 48 (N = 17 male; N = 31 female) healthy adults (mean age: 28.5 ± 10.4 years) with BMI's ranging from 18.9 to 47.2 (≥ 25 kg · m(-2), N = 24). OA detection thresholds and self-reported hunger (100-mm visual analog scale) were assessed at each visit. BMI and dietary fat intake (Block Rapid Fat Screener) were determined at baseline. There was a significant decrease of threshold concentration over repeated trials among lean and overweight (BMI between 25.0 and 29.9 kg · m(-2)) participants but not in the obese. Combining the lean and overweight and contrasting their responses to the obese revealed the lean plus overweight group to be significantly more sensitive at visits 6 and 7. No change of threshold sensitivity or correlation with fat intake was observed in the obese participants unlike findings in the lean and lean plus overweight participants. Correlations between saturated fat intake and threshold sensitivity were positive (greater intake associated with higher thresholds) at baseline for the group, with additional correlations observed among the lean plus overweight but not in the obese, leaving open questions about the nutritional significance of the association. No significant associations were observed between sensitivity to OA and hunger. Repeated testing is required to assess associations between fat taste and other outcome variables.

Air Metabolite Preclusion Reduces Conscious Thought

Five studies supported the hypothesis that preclusion of air metabolite availability reduces conscious thought. Participants reported having fewer thoughts while having breathed through a bag without, rather than with, a hole at its end (Study 1). Participants who held their breath for 10 seconds reported having had fewer conscious thoughts than did participants who breathed normally (Study 2). Consistent with economic theories of resource scarcity increasing value, ratings of importance for a potpourri of items increased among participants who held their breath while rating those items, relative to ratings made by participants who breathed normally (Study 3), an effect that is mediated partly by effort expenditure, as suggested by selfreports of hiccup riddance (Study 4). Self-reported hunger correlated positively with ratings of importance of thought content (Study 5), raising plausibility of metabolite resource availability as an explanatory mechanism.

Increased hunger and speed of eating in obese children and adolescents

This quality improvement program examined self-reported hunger, over-eating, and eating speed in obese and normal-weight children and adolescents prior to an interventional component. Food frequency questionnaires were presented to 127 obese and 42 normal-weight patients, and perceived hunger, food intake and eating speed were rated. Obese patients reported significantly greater hunger than normal-weight patients (62.2% vs. 21.4%, p<0.001) and faster eating (55.7% vs. 23.3%, p<0.001). Patients reporting being "always" or "often hungry" were more than six times likely to be obese (OR=6.49, 2.86-14.73, p<0.001), while rapid speed of eating yielded a four-fold increase in likelihood of obesity (OR=4.15, 1.77-9.72, p<0.001). Hunger and speed of eating were also highly associated (p<0.001). Increased hunger and eating speed were highly prevalent in these obese pediatric patients and may reflect abnormalities of satiety and satiation.

How sleepy people select their food. Effect of wakefulness on portion size and food choice in male students

Acute sleep loss increases food intake in adults. However, little is known about the influence of acute sleep loss on portion size, and whether this depends on both hunger state and the type of food (meal or snack item) offered to an individual. The aim of the current study was to compare portion size choices after a night of sleep and a period of nocturnal wakefulness (a condition experienced by night-shift workers). Sixteen men (age: 23 ± 0.9 y, BMI: 23.6 ± 0.6 kg/m2) participated in a randomized within-subject design with two conditions, 8-h of sleep and total sleep deprivation (TSD). In the morning following sleep interventions, portion size was measured using a computer-based task, in both fasted and sated state. In addition, hunger as well as plasma levels of ghrelin were measured. Following TSD, subjects had increased plasma ghrelin levels, and chose larger portions, irrespective of the type of food, as compared to the sleep condition. Self-reported hunger was also enhanced. Following breakfast, sleep-deprived subjects chose larger portions of snacks, whereas the selection of meal items did not differ between the sleep interventions. Our results suggest that overeating in the morning after sleep loss is driven by both homeostatic and hedonic factors. Further, they show that portion size after sleep loss depend on both an individual’s hunger status, and the type of food offered.

Dietary Adherence and Satisfaction with a Bean-Based High-Fiber Weight Loss Diet: A Pilot Study

Objective. Dietary fiber can reduce hunger and enhance satiety, but fiber intake during hypocaloric weight loss diets typically falls short of recommended levels. We examined the nutritional effects and acceptability of two high-fiber hypocaloric diets differing in sources of fiber: (a) beans or (b) fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Methods. Subjects were 2 men, 18 women, mean age = 46.9, and mean BMI = 30.6. Subjects completed 3-day food diaries in each of the two baseline weeks. Subjects were then randomized to four weeks on one of two 1400-calorie diets including 25–35 g fiber primarily from 1.5 cups beans/day or from fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Recommended fiber-rich foods were provided. Subjects kept weekly 3-day food diaries and were assessed weekly. Results. Diet conditions did not differ on outcome measures. Both diets increased fiber intake from 16.6 g/day (SD = 7.1) at baseline to (treatment average) 28.4 g/day (SD = 6.5) (P < 0.001). Fiber intake was consistent over treatment. Caloric intake dropped from 1623.1 kcal/day (SD = 466.9) (baseline) to 1322.2 kcal/day (SD = 275.8) (P = 0.004). Mean weight loss was 1.4 kg (SD = 1.5; P < 0.001). Energy density and self-reported hunger decreased (P's < 0.01) while self-reported fullness increased (P < 0.05). Both diets were rated as potentially acceptable as long as six months. Conclusions. Both diets significantly increased fiber intake by 75%, increased satiation, and reduced hunger. Results support increasing fiber in weight loss diets with a variety of fiber sources.

Relationship between hunger, adherence to antiretroviral therapy and plasma HIV RNA suppression among HIV-positive illicit drug users in a Canadian setting

Food insecurity may be a barrier to achieving optimal HIV treatment-related outcomes among illicit drug users. This study therefore, aimed to assess the impact of severe food insecurity, or hunger, on plasma HIV RNA suppression among illicit drug users receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART). A cross-sectional Multivariate logistic regression model was used to assess the potential relationship between hunger and plasma HIV RNA suppression. A sample of n = 406 adults was derived from a community-recruited open prospective cohort of HIV-positive illicit drug users, in Vancouver, British Columbia (BC), Canada. A total of 235 (63.7%) reported “being hungry and unable to afford enough food,” and 241 (59.4%) had plasma HIV RNA < 50 copies/ml. In unadjusted analyses, self-reported hunger was associated with lower odds of plasma HIV RNA suppression (Odds Ratio = 0.59, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.39–0.90, p = 0.015). In multivariate analyses, this association was no longer significant after controlling for socio-demographic, behavioral, and clinical characteristics, including 95% adherence (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 0.65, 95% CI: 0.37–1.10, p = 0.105). Multivariate models stratified by 95% adherence found that the direction and magnitude of this association was not significantly altered by the adherence level. Hunger was common among illicit drug users in this setting. Although, there was an association between hunger and lower likelihood of plasma HIV RNA suppression, this did not persist in adjusted analyses. Further research is warranted to understand the social-structural, policy, and physical factors shaping the HIV outcomes of illicit drug users.

Hunger modulates behavioral disinhibition and attention allocation to food-associated cues in normal-weight controls

Overeating, weight gain and obesity are considered as a major health problem in Western societies. At present, an impairment of response inhibition and a biased salience attribution to food-associated stimuli are considered as important factors associated with weight gain. However, recent findings suggest that the association between an impaired response inhibition and salience attribution and weight gain might be modulated by other factors. Thus, hunger might cause food-associated cues to be perceived as more salient and rewarding and might be associated with an impairment of response inhibition. However, at present, little is known how hunger interacts with these processes. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether hunger modulates response inhibition and attention allocation towards food-associated stimuli in normal-weight controls. A go-/nogo task with food-associated and control words and a visual dot-probe task with food-associated and control pictures were administered to 48 normal-weight participants (mean age 24.5years, range 19–40; mean BMI 21.6, range 18.5–25.4). Hunger was assessed twofold using a self-reported measure of hunger and a measurement of the blood glucose level. Our results indicated that self-reported hunger affected behavioral response inhibition in the go-/nogo task. Thus, hungry participants committed significantly more commission errors when food-associated stimuli served as distractors compared to when control stimuli were the distractors. This effect was not observed in sated participants. In addition, we found that self-reported hunger was associated with a lower number of omission errors in response to food-associated stimuli indicating a higher salience of these stimuli. Low blood glucose level was not associated with an impairment of response inhibition. However, our results indicated that the blood glucose level was associated with an attentional bias towards food-associated cues in the visual dot probe task. In conclusion our results suggest that hunger induces an approach bias and is associated with an impairment of response inhibition when normal-weight participants are confronted with food-associated cues. These findings are important as these processes play a crucial role with regard to the control of food-intake and weight gain and are assumed to contribute to obesity. Thus, individualized treatment approaches taking into account the experience of hunger in everyday-life situations should be considered in addition to a training of response inhibition.

Prevalence and correlates of hunger among primary and secondary school children in Malawi: results from the 2009 Global School-based Health Survey.

Education is important in improving economies and creating literate, self-reliant and healthy societies. However, hunger is a barrier to basic education in Malawi. Hunger is also associated with a number of health risk behaviours, such as bullying, suicide ideation and unhygienic behaviours that may jeopardize the future of children. There are, however, limited data on the prevalence and associated factors of hunger among school children in Malawi. The study used data from the Malawi Global School-Based Health Survey conducted in 2009 to estimate the prevalence of self-reported hunger within the last 30 days among primary and secondary school age group. It also assessed the association between self-reported hunger and some selected list of independent variables using frequency distribution, chi-squared test and logistic regression. A total of 2359 students were available for analysis. The overall self-reported prevalence of hunger within the last 30 days was 12.5% (18.9% (172) in the rural and 8.3% (115) in urban areas; and 11.9%(123) for male and 12.5(148) for female children). In the final analysis, geographical location, eating fruits, having been bullied, suicide ideation, and washing hands with soap were significantly associated with hunger. Hunger in both primary and secondary school children in Malawi is a major social problem. The design of school feeding programmes aimed to reduce hunger should incorporate the factors identified as associated with hunger.

The Effect of Short, Daily Oral Exposure on Non-esterified Fatty Acid Sensitivity

Detection threshold testing of non-esterified fatty acids (“fat taste”) is time intensive as multiple visits (≥7) are needed to see significant improvements. Streamlining this process is of interest from the perspectives of both researchers and participants. We examined whether or not brief exposure to oleic acid over 10 days would improve detection threshold performance. Additionally, we tested whether or not sample preparation method with either homogenization or sonication resulted in significant differences in performance. The effects of gender, BMI, and self-reported hunger, all proposed to impact threshold sensitivity, were also assessed. Fifty-four participants underwent baseline detection threshold testing of oleic acid following an ascending, three-alternative forced choice testing paradigm. Participants were then randomized to once daily exposure of either oleic acid or sucrose for 10 days. Detection threshold testing was conducted again on day 11 or 12. There was no significant improvement between baseline and follow-up. No effects of hunger were noted. Sample preparation method did not influence performance. No differences in sensitivity either at baseline or follow-up were observed between gender or BMI class (lean vs. overweight). No significant correlations between visits were found, suggesting that two testing sessions are not sufficient to establish stability in sensitivity.

Acute sleep deprivation increases portion size and affects food choice in young men

Acute sleep loss increases food intake in adults. However, little is known about the influence of acute sleep loss on portion size choice, and whether this depends on both hunger state and the type of food (snack or meal item) offered to an individual. The aim of the current study was to compare portion size choice after a night of sleep and a period of nocturnal wakefulness (a condition experienced by night-shift workers, e.g. physicians and nurses). Sixteen men (age: 23 ± 0.9 years, BMI: 23.6 ± 0.6 kg/m(2)) participated in a randomized within-subject design with two conditions, 8-h of sleep and total sleep deprivation (TSD). In the morning following sleep interventions, portion size, comprising meal and snack items, was measured using a computer-based task, in both fasted and sated state. In addition, hunger as well as plasma levels of ghrelin were measured. In the morning after TSD, subjects had increased plasma ghrelin levels (13%, p=0.04), and chose larger portions (14%, p=0.02), irrespective of the type of food, as compared to the sleep condition. Self-reported hunger was also enhanced (p<0.01). Following breakfast, sleep-deprived subjects chose larger portions of snacks (16%, p=0.02), whereas the selection of meal items did not differ between the sleep interventions (6%, p=0.13). Our results suggest that overeating in the morning after sleep loss is driven by both homeostatic and hedonic factors. Further, they show that portion size choice after sleep loss depend on both an individual's hunger status, and the type of food offered.

Acute and chronic effects of gum chewing on food reinforcement and energy intake

Although chewing gum has been considered a potential method for reducing energy intake, little empirical data exist to support this idea. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that chewing gum before eating reduces motivation to eat, hunger, and energy intake. In order to test this hypothesis, we conducted two experiments in which participants chewed gum prior to completing a food reinforcement task or before all eating occasions for two of three weeks. In Experiment 1, we found that chewing gum had no influence on the reinforcing value of food, but chewing mint gum reduced liking of and energy intake from fruit. In addition, chewing gum reduced self-reported hunger immediately after gum chewing and after eating compared with the no gum condition. In Experiment 2, gum chewing had no significant effect on total energy intake, but participants consumed fewer meals, consumed more energy per meal, and had a lower nutrient adequacy ratio during the gum chewing weeks. These studies provide no evidence that acute or chronic gum chewing reduces hunger or energy intake. In fact, chewing mint-flavored gum may deter consumption of fruit and reduce diet quality.

A Behaviour-Based Approach to the Estimation of Poverty in India

Since the late 1970s, the price indices underlying the poverty lines in India have been updated using aggregate indices. Widespread criticism of these indices led to the adoption of a new official methodology in 2011 based on unit values from con- sumption survey data. We propose an alternative approach that identifies poverty from consumer behaviour, based on the notion that equally poor households spend the same proportion of their incomes on food. Compared with official estimates, we find higher levels of poverty in eastern India, and generally, smaller reductions in poverty from 2005 to 2010. Our poverty numbers are validated by the calorie composition of households around the poverty lines and self-reported hunger.