Self-reported Exercise Behavior Research Articles

Understanding Exercise Beliefs and Behaviors in Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

The purpose of this study was to examine the exercise beliefs and behaviors of postpartum women who had gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) during a recent pregnancy. Postpartum women with GDM (n = 28) completed a mail survey assessing their self-reported exercise beliefs (advantages, barriers, and important social influences) and behaviors. We found that 1) the strongest perceived advantage of exercise during pregnancy was controlling blood glucose and postpartum it was controlling weight, 2) the most common barrier to exercise during pregnancy was fatigue and postpartum it was a lack of time, 3) women's husband/partner most strongly influenced their exercise during pregnancy and postpartum, 4) women exercised more during the postpartum period than before or during pregnancy, and 5) the number of exercise advantages was positively associated with women's pregnancy and postpartum exercise behavior. To increase exercise behavior and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes in women with GDM, researchers and health care professionals are encouraged to use women's exercise beliefs, that is, advantages, social influences, and perceived barriers to exercise, as a framework for designing effective diabetes treatment and prevention programs.

Testing a Model of Post-Stroke Exercise Behavior

Stroke is the leading cause of disability in older Americans, and survivors tend to be sedentary, thereby risking loss of functional gains achieved during rehabilitation and increasing cardiovascular risk. Studies of motivation to exercise in older adults suggest that self-efficacy and outcome expectations are key determinants of initiation and adherence to exercise programs. This study tested a theoretical model of physical activity in stroke survivors. A survey of exercise beliefs and patterns was sent to National Stroke Association stroke support groups. Responses from 312 stroke survivors (mean age 63 years, 57% female, 70% White) indicated that only 31% exercised four times weekly. Self-efficacy and outcome expectations for exercise, before exercise history, and physician recommendation all directly and indirectly influenced self-reported exercise behavior and accounted for 33% of the total variance in exercise behavior. Model testing supported the theory and the model fit the data. Interventions to strengthen self-efficacy and outcome expectations for exercise, along with reminders for clinicians to encourage regular exercise programs, may increase the likelihood of initiating and maintaining an exercise program, potentially improving physical function and cardiovascular fitness in this population.

Association between exercise and quality of life in multiple myeloma cancer survivors

The goal of this study was to examine the association between exercise and quality of life (QOL) in multiple myeloma cancer survivors. Using a retrospective design, 156 multiple myeloma cancer survivors were mailed a questionnaire that assessed self-reported exercise behavior over three periods (prediagnosis, active treatment, and off-treatment) and QOL. The response rate was 56% (88/ 156). Descriptive analyses indicated that 6.8% and 20.4% of survivors met national exercise guidelines during active and off-treatment periods, respectively. Exercise during active treatment and off-treatment were positively associated with overall QOL and all subdomains of QOL (all P<0.05) except physical wellbeing. A low percentage of multiple myeloma cancer survivors are exercising regularly either during active or off-treatment periods. Survivors who report more exercise during these periods also report higher QOL. These findings suggest that a randomized controlled trial is warranted.

Individual Differences in Preference For and Tolerance of Exercise Intensity

1135 Knowing the level of exercise intensity at which individuals prefer to exercise and which they can tolerate may be helpful in developing exercise prescriptions likely to improve rates of exercise adherence. There have been calls for increased examination of individual differences in the preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity, but there has only been limited systematic research in this regard [Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello (2001). Summary of symposium: Individual differences in preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity. J Sport & Exerc Psychol, 23, S9]. This could be due, at least in part, to the lack of a validated self-report measure of such individual differences. PURPOSE: To describe evidence for the concurrent convergent and discriminant validity, the internal consistency for the Preference for and Tolerance of Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire (PRETIE-Q). The PRETIE-Q is a 16-item selfreport measure designed to assess individual differences for preferences for (P) and tolerances of (T) intense exercise. METHODS: A large sample (N = 601 females, 20.1 yrs, BMI = 22.0) of undergraduates completed a test battery including the PRETIE-Q and other relevant measures. RESULTS: The alpha coefficient of internal consistency for the P scale was 0.89 and for the T scale was 0.86. Both P and T subscales were significantly related to self-reported exercise behavior (rs = 0.25, 0.32) and Strenuous exercise measured via the Godin Leisure Time Physical Activity questionnaire (rs = 0.30, 0.36) but not with either Moderate or Mild exercise. Significant relationships also emerged between both subscales and measures of exercise commitment, reasons for exercise, exercise dependence, and obligatory exercise (rs = 0.13 – 0.56). CONCLUSION: These data reflect the adequate internal consistency of the measure. Furthermore, although the magnitude of the relations was generally moderate, the results also reflect further evidence of the construct validity of the PRETIE-Q.

Developing an empirical typology for regular exercise☆

Background Tailored interventions require the identification of distinct homogenous subgroups that will benefit from different intervention materials. One way to identify such subgroups is to use cluster analysis to identify an empirical typology. Methods A sample of 346 adults completed surveys through a telephone interview that included questions related to participating in regular exercise. The three variables used in the cluster analysis were the Pros of Exercise, the Cons of Exercise, and Exercise Self-Efficacy. Results Six resulting clusters were labeled Disengaged, Immotive, Relapse Risk, Early Action, Maintainers, and Habituated. A series of analyses tested the internal and external validity of the typology. The internal validity test revealed that four of the clusters demonstrated high stability and replicability, while the Relapse Risk and Early Action clusters were less stable. Differences among clusters on self-reported exercise behavior and a strong association with stage of change for regular exercise provided external validity evidence of the typology. Conclusions The resulting typology reflects a range of motivational patterns that are likely to be responsive to different types of messages and strategies regarding adoption and maintenance of regular exercise. The typology also generates a number of hypotheses about the identified clusters that can be empirically tested in further studies.

Validation of a Stages of Exercise Change Questionnaire

The purpose of this study was to examine evidence for the validity of a stages of change measure of the Transtheoretical Model for exercise behavior. Participants were 152 university students (53.3% women, 71.6% Caucasian, M age = 19.18 years) who completed processes of change, self-efficacy, decisional balance, stages of change, and exercise behavior questionnaires as well as a maximal treadmill test. Participants in the action and maintenance stages had the highest strenuous (PC/C/P < A/M) and moderate (PC/C < A/M) self-reported exercise behavior. Those in the maintenance stage had the highest estimated aerobic fitness (PC/P < M). The differences between the early stages (PC, C, and P) and the later stages (A and M) as described by the first function were primarily due to the behavioral process of change. The differences between the extreme stages (PC and M) and the middle stages (C, P, and A) were due to the experiential processes of change and the pros of decisional balance. The hypothesized patterns ofstage differences were partially supported. Failure to obtain full support may have been due to methodological issues or inherent difficulties in detecting evidence for the validity of stages of change measures.

Exercise attitudes and behaviors among persons in treatment for alcohol use disorders.

The present study investigated self-reported exercise behaviors and exercise-related attitudes in a sample (N = 105) of adults in treatment for alcohol use disorders (AUD) (abuse or dependence). Slightly less than half (47%) of participants reported engaging in regular physical exercise (3 times per week or more). Level of alcohol dependence was not significantly associated with level of physical exercise activity. Level of nicotine dependence was significantly and negatively associated with physical activity level. Nicotine dependence and level of depressive symptoms were both significantly negatively associated with self-efficacy for physical exercise (SPE). Exercise self-efficacy mediated the relationship between nicotine dependence and physical activity level. Tension and stress reduction were among the most strongly endorsed of the perceived benefits of physical activity. Other perceived benefits included more positive outlook and increased self-esteem. Financial costs associated with exercise, lack of motivation, and time constraints were among the most common perceived barriers to exercise in this sample. Together, these preliminary data indicate that exercise-based interventions are may be well-received by those early in recovery from AUDs.

Exercise among blue-collar workers: application of the theory of planned behavior.

The purpose of this study was to identify cognitive predictors of blue-collar workers' (N = 468) intention to exercise and their self-reported exercise behavior. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) provided the framework for the study. A cross-sectional sample of skilled and unskilled workers from the physical facilities department of a large, Midwestern state university completed a questionnaire containing measures of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intention, and self-reported leisure exercise behavior. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that workers' attitude toward exercise and perceived behavioral control explained 61.7% of the variance of intention, whereas intention and perceived behavioral control explained 51.3% of the variance of exercise behavior. Subjective norm was not a significant predictor of intention to exercise. The findings support the use of the TPB in identifying cognitive factors that explain exercise behavior and suggest that interventions to promote exercise behavior in blue-collar workers should address their attitude toward exercise and their perceptions of behavioral control.

Does the Theory of Planned Behavior Mediate the Relation Between Personality and Exercise Behavior?

Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) proposes that the relation between personality and behavior is mediated by the social-cognitive constructs contained within the TPB. The purpose of the present studies was to examine the mediational role of the TPB in the exercise domain using the Five Factor Model (FFM; Costa & McCrae, 1992) as the personality framework. Two studies provided data to answer this question. Study 1 used a cross-sectional design with self-reported exercise behavior from 300 female undergraduate students. Study 2 used a prospective design with objective attendance records from 67 female participants enrolled in structured exercise classes. As expected, extraversion (E), conscientiousness (C), and neuroticism (N) were significantly related to exercise behavior. Contrary to our hypothesis, however, the relation between personality and exercise behavior was only partially mediated by the TPB. Specifically, hierarchical regression analysis of both data sets indicated that E had a direct relation with exercise behavior even after controlling for the TPB. We concluded that personality as operationalized by the FFM may need to be integrated into social-cognitive models applied to exercise behavior. To this end, we suggested that a more sophisticated theoretical description of the relations among personality, the TPB, and exercise behavior is needed.

Does the Theory of Planned Behavior Mediate the Relation Between Personality and Exercise Behavior?

Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) proposes that the relation between personality and behavior is mediated by the social-cognitive constructs contained within the TPB. The purpose of the present studies was to examine the mediational role of the TPB in the exercise domain using the Five Factor Model (FFM; Costa & McCrae, 1992) as the personality framework. Two studies provided data to answer this question. Study 1 used a cross-sectional design with self-reported exercise behavior from 300 female undergraduate students. Study 2 used a prospective design with objective attendance records from 67 female participants enrolled in structured exercise classes. As expected, extraversion (E), conscientiousness (C), and neuroticism (N) were significantly related to exercise behavior. Contrary to our hypothesis, however, the relation between personality and exercise behavior was only partially mediated by the TPB. Specifically, hierarchical regression analysis of both data sets indicated that E had a direct relation with exercise behavior even after controlling for the TPB. We concluded that personality as operationalized by the FFM may need to be integrated into social-cognitive models applied to exercise behavior. To this end, we suggested that a more sophisticated theoretical description of the relations among personality, the TPB, and exercise behavior is needed.

Perception of body weight and self-reported eating and exercise behaviour among obese and non-obese women in Saudi Arabia

A case control study was conducted to examine the theorized differences for eating and exercise behaviour among the obese and non-obese women from an urban health center in Saudi Arabia. Perceptions regarding actual and ideal body size were also determined. The obese were significantly more likely to eat under emotional conditions of stress and anger, in secrecy, and indulge in binge eating ( P < 0.05). Frequent snacking and drinking of regular soda drinks was also more common in this group compared to the controls ( P < 0.05). A weak association was observed for nibbling at food without being aware and preference of sweet foods compared to savoury ones by the obese ( P < 0.1). A large group of the study population (75%) were either not exercising at all or doing so infrequently—a feature expected in the middle and lower social class group of women in this region. A sizable proportion of women either overestimated (28.6%) or underestimated (28.9%) their actual body weight with increasing education significantly related to overestimation of weight and vice versa ( P < 0.05). A change in the concept of an ideal body image from the overweight female to that of the slim figure was also observed with advancing education. To control and prevent obesity in this region, it is suggested that health education related to an awareness of a healthy body size and appropriate eating and exercise behaviour should be given through primary health centers, other health facilities and schools.

Perception of body weight and self-reported eating and exercise behaviour among obese and non-obese women in Saudi Arabia

The isolation rate of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from pharyngeal swab cultures in the Japanese elderly was studied at admission to a geriatric hospital which had long-term care units. The subjects were 233 consecutive patients who were admitted to K Hospital in the time period April 1994 to March 1996. The isolation rate of MRSA and of Pseudomonas aeruginosa was 10.3% and 8.2% respectively. The proportions of the patients with severely to moderately limited Activities of Daily Living (ADL) (ADL score = 0–1) ( P < 0.01), those with fever ( P < ;0.01), those with CRP positive ( P = 0.04) and those with hypoalbuminemia (serum albumin<3.5 g/dl) ( P < 0.01) were higher in the MRSA positive patients than in the negative patients while the proportion of the patients with fever was higher in the Pseudomonas aeruginosa positive patients than in the negative patients ( P < 0.02). In the multiple logistic regression analysis, the limitation of ADL (ADL score 0–1 vs 2–3, OR = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.02–2.33) and fever (with vs without, OR = 1.77, 95% CI = 1.18–2.66) remained as risk factors for the isolation of MRSA while only fever (with vs without, OR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.11–2.53) remained as a risk factor for the isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa .

Relationship between Self-Reported and Physiological Indicators of Exercise Behavior in Older Women

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-reported exercise behavior and physiological indicators of exercise behavior (body composition and oxygen consumption measures) in older women. Three self-report exercise behavior instruments were administered in counterbalanced order. Body mass index and sums of skinfold thicknesses were used as measures of body composition. Oxygen consumption was measured using a metabolic cart during a treadmill test while women walked at approximately 70% of their heart rate reserve. Fifty-nine women participated (68.7 ± 6.0 years). Results showed that self-reported exercise behavior was moderately related to body composition measures. However, predicted maximal oxygen consumption was only weakly related to self-reported exercise behavior.

EXERCISE AND BODY IMAGE IN COLLEGE FEMALES 822

A considerable literature exists documenting relationships among exercise and psychosocial outcomes. Body image is one such outcome that is generally considered to be positively influenced by exercise, although the empirical literature on this topic is equivocal. In large part this equivocality has been due to subjective recall of exercise participation and the lack of a theoretical framework to guide researchers. In the context of college females, we used a self-presentational perspective in an attempt to better understand relationships between fitness, activity level, and perceptions of appearance. Seventy-four college females completed a battery of physiological(cardiovascular fitness, anthropometrics, and self-reported exercise behavior) and psychological inventories (Social Physique Anxiety, Physical Attractiveness Self-Efficacy, and Body Satisfaction). Bivariate correlations revealed that females with greater cardiovascular fitness reported less body fat (r=-.61), weight (r=-.45), and physique anxiety (r=-.26) and greater efficacy (r=.29) and body satisfaction (r=.40). Self-reported exercise frequency and duration was only related to body fat (-.25). Hierarchical regression analyses further revealed that efficacy (β=-.30) and body satisfaction (β=-.40) were the only significant predictors of physique anxiety. The results are discussed in terms of measurement and research design specifications.

Epidemiologic characteristics of participants and nonparticipants in health-promotion programs.

There is potential for nonparticipation in health-promotion programs to impact on all overall success of these programs. The evidence on the relationship of participation of demographic and health characteristic is conflicting. The study presented here prospectively examined the relationship of personnel data and self-reported smoking, exercise, and dietary behavior to participation in the initial phase of a new health-promotion program. Compared with the total population, participants tended to be older and more educated, to be foreign-born and of Eastern ethnic origin, and to have more children. The participant population also tended to include more women, married individuals, and noncommissioned officers. A low smoking prevalence (17% of the participants), a high mean exercise rate (four times per week), and low weekly mean egg consumption (2.7) were observed among the program participants. These results indicate that this program preferentially enrolled people who already were committed to healthy lifestyles, and did not reach all segments of the work force equally.

Predicting Vigorous Physical Activity of Corporate Employees: Comparing the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior

The purpose of the present study was to compare the utility of the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior in predicting the exercise intentions and behavior of corporate employees. Corporate employees (/7=332) who completed two questionnaires served as subjects. The first questionnaire assessed intentions, subjective norm, attitude, and perceived control with respect to participating in regular, vigorous physical activity. Participants also completed a follow-up questionnaire 4 weeks later that assessed self-reported frequency of vigorous physical activity during those 4 weeks. Hierarchical-regression analyses indicated that perceived behavioral control (the critical variable in the theory of planned behavior) accounted for a significant portion of the variance in intentions and self-reported exercise behavior, above that accounted for by reasoned action. These results lend support to Ajzen's theory of planned behavior, which suggests that individuals' perceptions of control are most important when attempting behaviors that are not completely under volitional control.

Self-reported exercise behavior of employees: a validity study.

The aim of the present study was to assess the validity of different self-reported questions for measuring exercise behavior of 551 employees. Values of maximum oxygen intake, body mass index, muscular endurance, and a fitness profile, based on the individual results obtained from each of the three physiologic parameters, were used as validity criteria for the self-reported measures. The influence of fitness profile on the measures of exercise habits indicated that the fit employees reported a more active pattern of exercise behavior, participated in more strenuous physical activity, and expended a greater amount of energy in a typical week than the unfit employees. There was no gain obtained in explaining fitness categorization with a more elaborate method compared with a simple question in measuring exercise behavior. The results of the present study show that the suggested simple method (one question) for assessing exercise behavior of employees is valid and can be useful for nurses and company physicians when evaluating the baseline behavior of a group of employees to assess the impact of exercise promotion programs at the work site.

School promotion of healthful diet and physical activity: impact on learning outcomes and self-reported behavior.

The Go For Health Program included classroom health education and environmental changes in school lunch and physical education to foster healthful diet and exercise among elementary school children. Interventions were based on social learning theory and implementation was based on an organizational change strategy for school innovations. Two schools were assigned to intervention and two to control conditions. Cognitive measures (behavioral capability, self-efficacy, behavioral expectations) and self-reported diet and exercise behavior were assessed at baseline and following intervention. Data were analyzed by ANOVA using the student and then the school as the unit of analysis. Statistically significant changes were observed for diet behavioral capability, self-efficacy, and behavioral expectations, use of salt, and exercise behavioral capability (fourth grade), self-efficacy (fourth grade) and frequency of participation in aerobic activity. The results provide evidence for program impact on learning outcomes and student behavior.

Self-Schemata and Exercise

The present study examined whether exerciser schematics, nonexerciser schematics, and aschematics differed in their self-reported exercise behavior, as well as whether they differed in their thoughts and feelings about exercising. Analyses revealed that exerciser schematics exercised more frequently, did more activities for exercise, were more likely to have exercised the previous semester, were more interested in and committed to exercising in the future, had made more plans to help themselves to exercise regularly, and had a somewhat greater number of tricks or strategies for getting themselves to exercise on days when they did not feel like exercising. The significance of these findings is discussed in regard to the self-schemata and exercise behavior literatures and in regard to implications for interventions to promote exercise.