Self-reported Discrimination Research Articles

LONGITUDINAL MENTAL HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF PHYSICAL DISABILITIES: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION

Individuals with disabilities have been historically mistreated by discrimination. The detrimental mental health effects of self-reported interpersonal discrimination are well established. However, little empirical attention has been given to the role of perceived discrimination in the adverse mental health outcomes of adults with physical disabilities. This study aims to examine whether daily interpersonal discrimination (i.e., microaggression) mediates the prospective association between having a functional impairment and subsequent changes in the individuals’ mental health outcomes over their midlife and old age. To address this question, this study used data from two waves of a population-based national study, the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States, covering a 7- to 9-year period (n= 2,503; Mage at baseline = 57, SDage = 11). Physical disability or functional impairment was assessed with items adapted from the SF-36, capturing difficulty with nine activities of daily living. Having functional impairment at the baseline assessment was associated with increases in depressive symptoms and negative affect over the study period. Daily interpersonal discrimination partially mediated this longitudinal association, explaining 7.4% (for depressive symptoms) to 8.1% (for negative affect) of the total effects. Exposure to discrimination and its mental health consequences were also more pronounced at younger ages. Disability-related perceived discrimination is an under-recognized mechanism that is likely to contribute to mental health inequities in later life. Professionals in health and disability policy, research, and practice need to concentrate efforts on developing policy and programs that reduce discrimination experienced by US adults with disabilities.

Self-reported discrimination in health surveys: results from a scoping review

Abstract Background Surveying perceived discrimination in the context of health monitoring can help to clarify the connection between unequal treatment and health. We aimed to review, identify and extract data on definitions and measures of discrimination. Methods A scoping review of both peer reviewed and grey literature was conducted. Survey instruments used in representative surveys in Germany were compared and discussed regarding their strengths and limitations. Ethical and methodical guidelines and policy reports by WHO, ECDC, EUPHA, migration research institutions and local NGOs were considered. Results Research from North America, South Africa and, to a lesser extent, European countries shows a clear link between discrimination and health. Various scales, individual items and instruments operationalize discrimination as worse treatment in everyday life or disadvantage in the structural field (authorities, housing market, working life). Possible reasons and frequencies of experiences are surveyed. Additional instruments are used to evaluate moderators such as vigilance or coping. Besides validity and reliability, ethical aspects such as voluntary self-disclosure, avoidance of external ascriptions and assessment of multiple dimensions of discrimination should be considered. Conclusions We propose a three-stage instrument for surveying perceived discrimination in German health surveys. First, the frequency of interpersonal experiences is surveyed by the everyday discrimination scale validated for different settings. Second, possible reasons for the reported experiences are asked, based on the categories of the German General Equal Treatment Act. Lastly, questions on discrimination in health care and by public authorities will address specific public health areas. Key messages Only few studies are available on discrimination and health in Europe, more is needed to effectively address health disparities. We propose to consider specific ethical and methodical aspects when surveying perceived discrimination as a health determinant.

The Intersections of Race, Gender, Age, and Socioeconomic Status: Implications for Reporting Discrimination and Attributions to Discrimination.

This study employed an intersectional approach (operationalized as the combination of more than one social identity) to examine the relationship between aspects of social identity (i.e., race, gender, age, SES), self-reported level of mistreatment, and attributions for discrimination. Self-reported discrimination has been researched extensively and there is substantial evidence of its association with adverse physical and psychological health outcomes. Few studies, however, have examined the relationship of multiple demographic variables (including social identities) to overall levels self-reported mistreatment as well the selection of attributions for discrimination. A diverse community sample (N = 292; 42.12% Black; 47.26% male) reported on experiences of discrimination using the Everyday Discrimination Scale. General linear models were used to test the effect of sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., race, gender, age, SES) on total discrimination score and on attributions for discrimination. To test for intersectional relationships, we tested the effect of two-way interactions of sociodemographic characteristics on total discrimination score and attributions for discrimination. We found preliminary support for intersectional effects, as indicated by a significant race by age interaction on the selection of the race attribution for discrimination; gender by SES on the age attribution; age by gender on the education attribution; and race by SES on the economic situation attribution. Our study extends prior work by highlighting the importance of testing more than one factor as contributing to discrimination, particularly when examining to what sources individuals attribute discrimination.

A Multisite Examination of Everyday Discrimination and the Prevalence of Spontaneous Preterm Birth in African American and Latina Women in the United States.

African American women have a higher risk of spontaneous preterm birth than White and Latina women. Although Latina women are exposed to similar social determinants of health, they have lower rates of spontaneous preterm birth. One theory for this difference is the maternal stress biological pathway, whereby lifetime stressors, such as racial discrimination, lead to a premature activation of parturition. We investigated the prevalence of self-reported discrimination and its association with the prevalence of spontaneous preterm birth. Using data from the Community Child Health Research Network Study, a multisite cohort study from 2008 to 2012, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 1,154 African American women and 578 Latina women. Adjusting for multiple risk factors, African American and Latina women who experienced the highest tertile of discrimination had a higher prevalence of preterm birth compared with those who experienced discrimination less than once per year, adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) = 1.5 (0.7-3.1) and 3.6 (0.9-14.4), respectively. In our cohort, we found a statistically significant association only in the medium discrimination group in Latina women, but we did not find a statistically significant association in African American women. Reduction in experienced discrimination may be an important intervention for reducing adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Experiences of Discrimination and Sexual Behaviors: An Examination of Motives as Potential Psychological Mediators

Objectives: We investigated three psychological mechanisms that may underlie the associations between discrimination and sexual activity: emotion regulation, autonomy restoration, and intimacy building. Methods: An online survey was administered to a diverse sample of 565 undergraduate students at a large public university. Results: Having sex to mitigate negative emotions mediated the associations between self-reported discrimination and lifetime number of sexual partners, and between discrimination and the frequency of sexual intercourse while intoxicated. Conclusions: Sexual activity may serve as a coping strategy in response to the experiences of negative emotions and human core needs thwarted by the experiences of discrimination.

Abstract P027: Perceived Discrimination and Trajectory of High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein: The Jackson Heart Study

Introduction: Perceiving discriminatory treatment against oneself may induce a stress response, and over time contribute to cardiovascular pathophysiology. The study evaluated the association of self-reported discrimination and changes in high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), a marker of systemic inflammation predictive of incident cardiovascular disease. Hypothesis: We assessed the following hypotheses: 1) higher levels of perceived discrimination are associated with higher serum hs-CRP at baseline, 2) over 13 years of follow-up, greater mean increases in hs-CRP are observed among those with higher levels of baseline discrimination than those with lower levels of discrimination, and 3) body composition mediates the longitudinal trajectory. Methods: The sample included 5145 African American participants, aged 21-92, in the Jackson Heart Study. Multiple imputation addressed missingness in baseline sociodemographic (e.g, age, sex, education), behavioral (e.g., AHA smoking and physical activity categorizations) and clinical covariates (e.g, estimated glomerular filtration rate, diastolic blood pressure, hemoglobin A1c) as well as in hs-CRP taken at all three study examinations. Everyday, lifetime, and burden from perceived discrimination -attributed to reasons including race, gender, age, or weight- comprised primary predictors in three sets of multivariable linear regression models of baseline (2000-2004) discrimination and ln(hs-CRP). Linear mixed models (LMMs) were fitted to assess mean changes in ln(hs-CRP) between three study examinations (2000-2013).Mediation was quantified by percent changes in estimates adjusted for the adiposity measures BMI, waist circumference, or waist-to-height ratio. Results: In the cross-sectional analyses, those in the highest tertile of lifetime discrimination had adjusted ln(hs-CRP) levels 0.08 ln(mg/dL) lower than those in the lowest tertile (95% CI= -0.16, -0.01). However, the ln(hs-CRP) increases among those reporting more frequent everyday discrimination were 0.07 ln(mg/dL) higher per examination than those reporting no everyday discrimination (95% CI=0.01, 0.12) A similar trend emerged for lifetime discrimination and changes in ln(hs-CRP) (adjusted mean increase per visit: 0.04 ln(mg/dL), CI=0.01, 0.08). BMI, waist circumference, or waist-to-height ratio did not mediate the longitudinal associations between any discrimination measure and hs-CRP. In sensitivity analyses, the magnitude of these estimates did not change before or after multiple imputation. Conclusion: Everyday and lifetime discrimination were associated with significant hs-CRP increases over 13 years of follow-up. These conclusions build upon the existing research that indicates the physiological response to discrimination may lead to systemic inflammation and in turn cardiovascular disease.

The association of self-reported discrimination to all-cause mortality: A population-based prospective cohort study.

Discrimination has is an important social determinant of health and though some research has been carried out on this it is mostly from the United States, which may not be generalisable to Europe and Sweden. This study investigated the association between self-reported experiences of repeated discrimination and all-cause mortality in Scania, Sweden. The Scania Public Health survey was sent out in 2008 with a follow-up in 2013 through the Swedish national cause of death register (N=28,062). The exposure variable under investigation was self-reported discrimination and the outcome variable was all-cause mortality. Additional variables included demographics (age, sex, marital status, immigrant status), health behaviours (smoking, alcohol consumption, physical exercise), BMI, social participation, economic stress, and mental health. Time was measured as total number of days. Statistical analysis included association of the different variables to discrimination (ORs) and to all-cause mortality (HRs) adjusting for different covariates. Effect modification was tested for social participation, economic stress and mental health. The odds of discrimination was higher among the most vulnerable groups in society. All-cause mortality was strongly associated to age and sex, with a much higher risk among men than women. The association of repeated discrimination to all-cause mortality remained significant after adjusting for demographic variables, health behaviours and either social participation or economic stress, but not both. The association was non-significant after adjusting for demographic variables and mental health. Social participation was found to be an effect modifier with low participation strengthening the effect of the association of repeated discrimination to all-cause mortality. Repeated discrimination clearly has a strong impact on mental health but also on economic stress and social participation which in turn have a strong impact on mortality.

Perceptions of positive treatment and discrimination towards people with mental health problems: Findings from the 2017 Attitudes to Mental Illness survey

Anti-stigma programme evaluations primarily measure knowledge and attitudes, and rarely assess behaviour. This study describes perceived and self-reported avoidance, discrimination and positive treatment using data from the 2017 Attitudes to Mental Illness survey. A nationally representative quota sample of 1720 English participants were interviewed about mental health-related knowledge and attitudes, reported and intended contact with people with mental health problems, awareness of the Time to Change anti-stigma programme and knowledge of anyone with a mental health problem. Participants who knew someone were asked how they thought the person was treated in different life areas, and whether they had avoided the person, treated them unfairly or treated them more positively. 30.1% of respondents knew someone with a mental health problem. Most believed the person had been treated fairly across various life domains. 5.1% of participants reported avoiding the person, 2.1% reported unfair treatment, and 58.1% reported positive treatment. Less stigmatising attitudes were associated with reduced avoidance and discrimination. Greater knowledge and reported contact were associated with positive treatment. Anti-stigma campaigns can reduce discrimination or increase positive treatment by targeting knowledge, attitudes and awareness of people with mental health problems. Evaluations should measure discrimination and positive treatment to fully assess behavioural change.

Burnout and Career Satisfaction in Women Neurologists in the United States.

Professional burnout is a growing problem among physicians. Neurology has been found to be one of the specialties with the highest prevalence for burnout. However, little is known about gender-specific risk factors. The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the prevalence of burnout among a sample of women neurologists in the United States and (2) to identify predictive factors leading to burnout. An online survey was distributed to 798 U.S. women neurologists through the closed Facebook group Women Neurologists Group. Burnout was assessed with the Mini-Z survey. Additional questions assessed current practice settings, family and childcare responsibilities, work-life balance, gender discrimination experiences, career satisfaction, and plans for career changes. The survey received 181 responses, yielding a 22.7% response rate. Most respondents were 1-10 years post-training and 35.4% indicated they felt neutral or dissatisfied toward their current job; 42.6% of respondents reported symptoms of burnout. Working in a high stress environment, lack of control over the work schedule, a higher number of hours at work, and self-reported gender discrimination were each independent predictive factors for burnout. Having more children was associated with decreased likelihood of becoming a physician again, and less than a third of respondents with three or more children indicated they would become a physician again. While 91.1% of respondents considered themselves effective with electronic health record use, 56.9% indicated insufficient time for documentation. Professional burnout and career dissatisfaction have high prevalence in women neurologists and threaten the future of the neurology workforce. There is an urgent need for interventions to alleviate stressors associated with burnout and measures to reduce gender discrimination.

Lifetime discrimination burden, racial discrimination, and subclinical cerebrovascular disease among African Americans.

Explore interactive relations of lifetime discrimination burden and racial discrimination-chronic stressors among African Americans (AAs)-and age with MRI-assessed white matter lesion volume (WMLV), a prognostic indicator of poor clinical brain health outcomes. AAs (N = 71; 60.6% female, mean age = 50) participating in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) SCAN study underwent quantitative magnetic resonance imaging coded for WMLV. Participants self-reported lifetime discrimination burden and racial discrimination approximately 5 years earlier. Multivariable regression models assessed interactions of linear and quadratic effects of discrimination and age with WMLV adjusted for sex and socioeconomic status. Findings revealed significant interactive relations of age and (a) quadratic, lifetime discrimination burden, B = .05, p = .014, ηpartial2 = .092, and (b) quadratic, racial discrimination, B = .03, p = .001, ηpartial2 = .155, with WMLV. Among older AA, increases in lifetime discrimination burden and racial discrimination were associated with increases in WMLV (ps < .03); in younger AA, decreasing levels of racial discrimination were related to increases in WMLV (p = .006). Among older AA, as lifetime discrimination burden and racial discrimination increased, so did WMLV. However, in younger AA, decreases in racial discrimination were associated with increased WMLV. Elucidation of complex mechanistic underpinnings, including potentially differential impacts of the acknowledgment versus suppression or underreporting of discriminatory experiences, among AA of different age cohorts, is critical to understanding the present pattern of findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Interpersonal-level discrimination indices, sociodemographic factors, and telomere length in African-Americans and Whites

ObjectiveStudies have linked self-reported discrimination to telomere attrition, a biological marker of accelerated cellular aging. However, it is unknown whether intersections between social categories—race, socioeconomic status (SES), sex, and age—influence the association of varying forms of discrimination with telomere length. We examined these associations in a socioeconomically and racially/ethnically diverse urban sample. MethodsCross-sectional data were from 341 middle-aged (30–64 years) African American and White, community participants in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span Study (HANDLS). Multiple regression models examined up to 3-way interactions between a discrimination measure (i.e., everyday, racial, gender, lifetime burden, and frequency of discrimination across sources) and two social categories. ResultsAfter adjusting for depressive symptoms, waist circumference, and lifetime substance use, two themes emerged: 1) among women with higher SES, a) greater lifetime discrimination burden (b = -0.23, p = .011), gender discrimination (b = -0.29, p = .040), and racial discrimination (b = -0.24, p = 0.023) and 2) among younger adults, irrespective of race and sex, greater frequency of discrimination across sources (b = 0.002, p = .008) was associated with shorter telomeres. ConclusionsIrrespective of race, women with higher SES and younger adults reporting greater discrimination may be at particular risk for accelerated aging. Telomere attrition promotes and accelerates chronic health conditions for which there are health disparities. Future research explicating intersections among specific discrimination indices and social categories is warranted.

Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our Understanding of Race-related Stressors.

This article provides an overview of research on race-related stressors that can affect the mental health of socially disadvantaged racial and ethnic populations. It begins by reviewing the research on self-reported discrimination and mental health. Although discrimination is the most studied aspect of racism, racism can also affect mental health through structural/institutional mechanisms and racism that is deeply embedded in the larger culture. Key priorities for research include more systematic attention to stress proliferation processes due to institutional racism, the assessment of stressful experiences linked to natural or manmade environmental crises, documenting and understanding the health effects of hostility against immigrants and people of color, cataloguing and quantifying protective resources, and enhancing our understanding of the complex association between physical and mental health.

Discrimination in healthcare settings among adults with recent HIV diagnoses

ABSTRACTThe prevalence of discrimination in healthcare settings among HIV patients in the United States is unknown. The Medical Monitoring Project (MMP) is a complex sample survey of adults receiving HIV medical care in the United States. We analyzed nationally representative MMP data collected 2011–2015. We assessed the prevalence of self-reported healthcare discrimination, perceived reasons for discrimination, and factors associated with discrimination among persons with HIV diagnoses ≤5 years before interview (n = 3,770). Overall, 14.1% of patients living with HIV (PLWH) experienced discrimination, of whom 82.2% attributed the discrimination to HIV. PLWH reporting poverty, homelessness, or attending a non-Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program (RWHAP) facility were more likely to report discrimination compared with other groups. Of patients attending non-RWHAP facilities, discrimination was higher among those in poverty (27.5%) vs. not in poverty (15.1%). Discrimination was associated with homelessness regardless of facility type, and was highest among homeless persons attending non-RWHAP facilities.Healthcare discrimination was commonly reported among PLWH, and was most often attributed to HIV status. Discrimination was higher among those reporting poverty or homelessness, particularly those attending non-RWHAP facilities. Incorporating practices, such as anti-discrimination training, in facilities may reduce healthcare discrimination.

Racial discrimination, educational attainment, and biological dysregulation among midlife African American women

ObjectiveTo examine the association between self-reported racial discrimination and allostatic load, and whether the association differs by socioeconomic position. MethodsWe recruited a purposive cross-section of midlife (ages 30–50) African American women residing in four San Francisco Bay area counties (n = 208). Racial discrimination was measured using the Experience of Discrimination scale. Allostatic load was measured as a composite of 15 biomarkers assessing cardiometabolic, neuroendocrine, and inflammatory activity. We calculated four composite measures of allostatic load and three system-specific measures of biological dysregulation. Multivariable regression was used to examine associations, while adjusting for relevant confounders. ResultsIn the high education group, reporting low (b = −1.09, P = .02, 95% CI = −1.99, −0.18) and very high (b = −1.88, P = .003, 95% CI = −3.11, −0.65) discrimination was associated with lower allostatic load (reference=moderate). Among those with lower education, reporting low (b = 2.05, P = .008, 95% CI = 0.55,3.56) discrimination was associated with higher allostatic load. Similar but less consistent associations were found for poverty status. Associations were similar for cardiometabolic functioning, but not for neuroendocrine or inflammatory activity. ConclusionsRacial discrimination may be an important predictor of cumulative physiologic dysregulation. Factors associated with educational attainment may mitigate this association for African American women and other groups experiencing chronic social stress.

Racial discrimination and relationship functioning among African American couples.

Racial discrimination is a common stressor for African Americans, with negative consequences for mental and physical well-being. It is likely that these effects extend into the family, but little research has examined the association between racial discrimination and couple functioning. This study used dyadic data from 344 rural, predominantly low-income heterosexual African American couples with an early adolescent child to examine associations between self-reported racial discrimination, psychological and physical aggression, and relationship satisfaction and instability. Experiences of discrimination were common among men and women and were negatively associated with relationship functioning. Specifically, men reported higher levels of psychological aggression and relationship instability if they experienced higher levels of racial discrimination, and women reported higher levels of physical aggression if they experienced higher levels of racial discrimination. All results replicated when controlling for financial hardship, indicating unique effects for discrimination. Findings suggest that racial discrimination may be negatively associated with relationship functioning among African Americans and call for further research on the processes underlying these associations and their long-term consequences. (PsycINFO Database Record

Development and Evaluation of the Individuals With Learning Disabilities and/or Difficulties Perceived Discrimination Scale

The present two studies describe the development and psychometric evaluation of the Learning Disability/Difficulty Perceived Discrimination Scale used to assess the self-reported discrimination experiences of people with learning difficulties and/or disabilities. In Study 1 ( N = 202) an exploratory factor analysis yielded two factors, Inferior and Cheating the System. In Study 2 ( N = 216) a confirmatory factor analysis supported the stability of this two-factor correlated model and a bifactor model. Across studies, subscale and full-scale items offered evidence of good reliability, convergent validity, and concurrent validity. Preliminary support for a minority stress framework is explored. Limitations, research, and clinical work with learning difficulties and/or disabilities populations are discussed.

Everyday Discrimination in Canada: Prevalence and Patterns

Using nationally representative data from the 2013 Canadian Community Health Survey, this article examines the prevalence and patterning of self-reported everyday discrimination in Canada. Almost twenty-three percent of Canadians report experiencing everyday discrimination. The most common types reported are gender, age, and race, followed by discrimination based on physical characteristics such as weight. Sex, age, marital status, race, place of birth, and body mass index all contribute to individuals’ reported experiences of discrimination. Gay men report particularly high levels of discrimination based on sexual orientation; Blacks, Asians, and Aboriginals report particularly high levels of racial discrimination; and Arabs, South and West Asians, and Aboriginals report particularly high levels of religious discrimination. There is strong evidence of the persistence of everyday discrimination in Canada, across multiple social groups, despite legal protections for marginalized groups. Suggestions are made for addressing the roots of discrimination at both the individual and the collective levels.

Veiled Politics: Experiences with Discrimination among Muslim Americans

AbstractAnecdotal evidence suggests that Muslim American women who wear the hijab may be particularly vulnerable to the experiences of stigmatization because the hijab represents one of the most obvious and dominant markers of “otherness.” Yet, extant research has surprisingly neglected to systematically examine how such external markers of difference can increase perceptions of discrimination. Drawing from two nationally representative datasets, we examine perceived discrimination among Muslim Americans, and find that veiled women report experiencing both societal and institutional discrimination at much higher rates than their counterparts. In fact, our findings show that the hijab is one of the most important predictors of self-reported discrimination amongallMuslim Americans. Interestingly, however, we also find that men are more likely than women to perceive discrimination once we account for the role of the hijab. Our analysis makes an important contribution to existing research by highlighting the unique experiences of a religious minority group and identifies one important and previously underexplored mechanism by which individuals may be targeted for discrimination—the hijab.

Abstract P361: Inflammatory Burden May Partially Mediate the Relationship Between Everyday Discrimination and Carotid Plaque Height in Midlife Women

Introduction: Self-reported experiences of discrimination have been associated with greater risk of incident cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality across racial/ethnic groups. However, questions remain regarding the potential mechanisms through which perceived discrimination may influence cardiovascular risk. Furthermore, the relationship between self-reported discrimination with markers of subclinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) such as atherosclerotic plaque presence, burden, and characteristics remains unclear. We hypothesized that perceived discrimination is associated with subclinical measures of carotid atherosclerosis indicative of greater CVD risk and that inflammation is a mechanism contributing to this relationship. Methods: Late peri- and postmenopausal women without clinical CVD (n=300) completed the Everyday Discrimination Scale, developed in order to assess day-to-day experiences of interpersonal mistreatment, and underwent B-mode ultrasound to assess carotid atherosclerosis. Associations between everyday discrimination and measures of carotid plaque presence, burden (total number of plaques, total plaque area), and characteristics (maximum height, grey-scale median, and calcification) were evaluated using linear and logistic regression models adjusted for demographics, as well as CVD and psychosocial risk factors. Overall circulating inflammatory burden, comprising C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and fibrinogen was identified via exploratory factor analysis and was evaluated as a potential mediator of the relationship between everyday discrimination and subclinical CVD through the ratio of the natural indirect effect and the total effect by inverse probability weighting. Results: The sample was predominately white (72% white (n=216); 22% black (n=66)), nearly half the women (n=138) had at least one carotid plaque, and 40% (n=120) reported experiencing high levels of everyday discrimination. After adjustment, women who reported high levels of discrimination had a maximum carotid plaque height 0.29 mm higher (p=0.03) than those who reported lower levels of discrimination. Circulating inflammatory burden was identified as a partial mediator of the relationship between high discrimination and carotid plaque height explaining 31% of the relationship. There were no significant associations of plaque presence, burden, or other plaque characteristics with discrimination, and the results did not vary by race/ethnicity. Conclusions: These findings add to the growing evidence that perceived discrimination may be associated with elevated cardiovascular disease risk among women of various racial/ethnic groups. These results suggest that increased inflammatory burden may be a mechanism through which experiences of discrimination may be associated with the development of atherosclerosis in midlife women.

A national survey on violence and discrimination among people with disabilities

BackgroundThe aim of the study was to quantify levels of violence and discrimination among people with disabilities and analyze the effects of gender and the type and degree of disability.MethodsThe study analyzed data on self-reported violence and discrimination from a Danish national survey of 18,019 citizens, of whom 4519 reported a physical disability and 1398 reported a mental disability.ResultsIndividuals with disabilities reported significantly higher levels of violence than those without. Specifically, individuals reporting a mental disability reported higher levels of violence and discrimination. Significant gender differences were found with regard to type of violence: while men with disabilities were more likely to report physical violence, women with disabilities were more likely to report major sexual violence, humiliation and discrimination. Neither severity nor visibility of disability was found to be a significant factor for risk of violence.ConclusionsThis large-scale study lends support to existing research showing that people with disabilities are at greater risk of violence than people without disabilities. Further, the study found that people with mental disabilities were significantly more likely to report all types of violence and discrimination than those with physical disabilities. The findings also show that gender is significant in explaining the type of violence experienced and the experience of discrimination.