Self-regulated Learning Research Articles

Beyond autonomy: unpacking self-regulated and self-directed learning through the lens of learner agency- a scoping review

Abstract Background Learner agency involves students actively engaging in their learning process and shaping their educational experiences through autonomy, self-regulation, and decision-making. In professional education, particularly within health professions, learner agency is critical for fostering adaptability and lifelong learning. This scoping review explores how learner agency, alongside concepts such as self-regulated learning and self-directed learning, is addressed in undergraduate dental education, aiming to understand its implications and strategies for enhancing student agency in this context. Methods The scoping review examined literature on self-regulated learning, self-directed learning and learner agency in undergraduate dental education from 1994-April 2024 across five databases: PubMed, Scopus, Embase, ProQuest Central, and Web of Science. A manual search of the cited references was also conducted. Relevant studies were screened, and the findings were summarized to offer a comprehensive overview and identify research gaps. Results In total, 33 studies were included in the review. The results revealed a strong interconnection between intrapersonal, behavioral, and contextual dimensions in shaping learner agency through self-regulated learning and self-directed learning among undergraduate dental students. The studies analyzed, predominantly quantitative, highlighted the multifaceted relationships among self-regulated learning and self-directed learning and learner agency, emphasizing its significance for educational practice and policy. Conclusions Self-regulated learning and self-directed learning are crucial for developing learner agency, aiding undergraduate students’ transition into independent professionals and fostering lifelong learning behaviors. Educational strategies should prioritize empowering students to become independent learners, reducing their reliance on faculty. Further research is needed to identify effective methods for promoting learner agency development among dental students.

Teacher characteristics as predictors of self-regulated learning encouragement

The aim of the research was to examine the predictors of teachers’ encouragement of Self-Regulated Learning (SRL), specifically focusing on the independent contribution of various teacher characteristics. These characteristics include: a) sociodemographic factors (gender, age), b) teacher beliefs, teaching approaches, and teaching efficacy, c) personality traits, d) type of school where the teacher works, school subject’s field of study and subject status, and e) the quality of teacher interactions in explaining teachers’ perceptions of SRL encouragement. The research was conducted on a sample of 251 teachers from primary and secondary schools using an online questionnaire. The results indicated that teacher characteristics (gender, age, teacher beliefs, teaching approaches, teaching efficacy, personality traits, subject’s field and subject status, and teacher behaviours) were related to SRL encouragement. This set of variables explained a moderate to relatively high proportion of the criterion variance (28% - 52%), with the most significant contributors being teacher beliefs, gender and age, personality traits, subject’s field of study and subject status, and teacher interactions, respectively. A mastery-oriented approach to teaching emerged as the most significant predictor of encouraging SRL. The encouragement of self-regulated learning is influenced by several factors, including the perception of teaching and learning as a process of empowerment, a mastery-oriented approach, higher teacher self-efficacy, female gender, older age, agreeableness, conscientiousness, intellect, subject’s positioning within the humanistic and social fields, optional subjects, and greater teacher helpfulness and friendliness. This research holds significant theoretical and practical implications for teacher encouragement of self-regulated learning.

Reimagining Criminology Education: A Study on the Metacognitive Awareness and Self- Regulation of Criminology Students

Metacognition as part of the teaching and learning process, has been one of the pivotal issues in the Philippine Criminological Education System. It has been a crucial concern for instructors and institutions alike to identify the thinking process of the students. Hence, in the educational process pre-existing understandings are deemed important as various subjects need to have improvement in their instruction as to its specific discipline. Thus, it is imperative to draw out and understand the process of students learning, improve activities, as to conform to the teaching approaches as it is significant to the curriculum and the discipline. In addition, self-regulation dictates the student’s thinking in a way of managing and improvement of their cognition. Hence, the study provides description on the metacognitive awareness and learning self-regulation of the Philippines’ Criminology students. Through a Descriptive-Correlation research design the study foresees to analyze its relationship; and provide an understanding on the students’ modern learning behavior. Keywords: Metacognition, Criminology, Learning-Regulation, Education, Student-Learning

Self-Regulated Learning Mediates the Impact of Word-Problem-Solving Teaching Instruction in Intrinsically Motivated Students: A Moderated Mediation Analysis

Mathematical word problem-solving ability is important for academic success and future career opportunities. While teaching approaches focusing on word problem-solving have shown promise, the mechanisms driving their effectiveness, particularly the roles of self-regulated learning (SRL) and motivation, remain unclear. This study investigates the moderated mediation effects of motivation on word problem-solving abilities through SRL. A quasi-experimental study was conducted with 123 eighth-grade Indonesian students, divided into four classes. Two classes received word problem-solving instruction, while the others followed standard problem-solving instruction. Students' problem-solving abilities, SRL, and motivation were assessed before and after the intervention. Using the PROCESS Macro, we evaluated simple and moderated mediation effects. The findings revealed that the word problem-solving intervention significantly enhanced SRL, which in turn improved problem-solving abilities, particularly among intrinsically motivated students. This effect was not observed in extrinsically motivated students. This study provides a novel exploration of SRL as a mediator and motivation as a moderator in educational interventions, offering a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying successful problem-solving. It provides valuable insights for educational practitioners, emphasizing the importance of SRL and intrinsic motivation in promoting effective and equitable problem-solving skills.

Scaffolding Lifelong Learning in First-Year Engineering Courses

In a world of evolving technology, it is critical for engineers to be able to recognize and take action to fill gaps in their knowledge. The development of these lifelong learning competencies has always been a significant part of university education, however there is a recent trend to teach and assess this graduate attribute in a more deliberate manner in engineering programs. A review of CEEA conference articles was conducted to gather information about the instruction of lifelong learning and existing surveys that measure lifelong learning and self-regulated learning in Canadian engineering programs. Based on the gaps identified in this review, instructional content and activities aimed at teaching lifelong learning and self-assessment survey questions are proposed as simple ways to teach and evaluate lifelong learning knowledge, skills, and attitudes in first-year engineering students. These recommendations can be used to guide engineering instructors in their lifelong learning pedagogical practices.

Comparison of the effects of group and individual reflection methods on self-regulated learning strategies and learning motivation among emergency medical technicians: a quasi-experimental study

BackgroundReflection is an essential educational practice often characterized as a self-regulated learning activity. Self-regulated learning has been shown to positively influence learning motivation and metacognition. This study aimed to compare the effect of group and individual reflection methods on self-regulation learning strategies and motivational components among emergency medical technicians.MethodsThis quasi-experimental study was conducted on 54 emergency medical technicians in South Khorasan province in 2023. Thirty pre-hospital emergency centers affiliated to Birjand University of Medical Sciences were randomly assigned to three blocks (A, B, and C). Participants were then selected through convenience sampling based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Eighteen participants working in pre-hospital emergency centers were selected from each block. The three blocks (A, B, and C) were randomly assigned into three arms: individual reflection, group reflection, and control. The individual reflection group members were asked to record their feelings and experiences using the Gibbs model in provided notebooks during four weeks (at the end of each week). The group reflection members, after forming groups and selecting leaders, engaged in the group reflection sessions in a designated room, following the Gibbs model for four weeks. The self-regulated learning strategies and learning motivation components of all participants were measured using standardized questionnaires before and after the intervention. Data were analyzed using paired t-test, one-way analysis of variance, Tukey’s post hoc test, and Fisher’s exact test.ResultsThe mean score of self-regulation learning strategies and learning motivation significantly increased in the group reflection arm after the intervention (p < 0.05). While the mean scores of motivational component and its individual components increased significantly in the individual reflection group after the intervention (p < 0.05), no significant difference was observed in the mean scores of self-regulation learning strategies and their components before and after the intervention (p > 0.05).ConclusionThe results of this research highlight the superiority of group reflection method over individual reflection in promoting self-regulated learning. While both methods were effective in enhancing learning motivation, group reflection proved to be more beneficial. Therefore, it is recommended that Emergency Medical Services managers provide training programs that incorporate group reflection to enable technicians to benefit from its advantages in terms of self-regulated learning strategies and learning motivation.

The influence of adjustment, mental health and motivation on graduate student learning strategies during COVID-19

Managing learning efforts and self-regulation skills are crucial for academic performance. Graduate students are considered more mature and utilize more sophisticated learning strategies than undergraduates. However, during the COVID-19 pandemic, they may have struggled with challenging academic tasks, transition to online course modality, and additional family responsibilities. This study examines how graduate students’ adjustment, mental health, and motivation impact their use of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies. An anonymous online survey was distributed via Qualtrics between November and December 2021. The survey incorporated a demographic questionnaire, College Adjustment Test (CAT), Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21), and selected subscales from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). The study gathered responses from 301 graduate students enrolled at a large southeastern university in the United States. Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling. The final model suggests that mental health and motivation factors may significantly and directly impact SRL strategies. Within the model, mental health factors, such as stress, seem to positively affect SRL strategies, while depression suggests a negative impact. Intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy in motivation had a positive influence on SRL strategies based on the model. Additionally, graduate students’ adjustment could influence their use of learning strategies via the mediation of these mental health and motivation factors. The opposite effects of positive and negative adjustment, as mediated by stress, depression, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy were also discussed.

Development and psychometric testing of the modeling scale for novice nurses: a cross-sectional survey design

BackgroundModeling is the learning of new patterns of behavior by observers through observation. In order for novice nurses to learn effectively in a busy, multi-tasking clinical environment, they need a learning strategy that is integrated into their daily work. Modeling is a necessary learning strategy for nurses because they learn skills, knowledge, and attitudes by observing senior nurses in action. In nursing, it is important to learn skills, knowledge, and attitudes by observing the behavior of senior colleagues. However, previous studies have shown that there are situations in which modeling is not done smoothly. Therefore, in this study, we decided to develop a modeling self-assessment scale to assist novice nurses in modeling.Methods1,457 novice nurses from a random sample of 103 hospitals in Japan were selected, of which 337 novice nurses were surveyed from November 2019 to January 2020 by anonymous questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of the draft Modeling Scale for Novice Nurses, The Scale Measuring a Sense of Generalized Self-Efficacy and a simplified version of the Scale of Self-Regulated Learning Strategy for Nurses for review of criteria-related relevance to the Modeling Scale for Novice Nurses, and personal background. Factor analysis was used for analysis, and correlation coefficients were calculated for criterion-related validity. For stability, the number of intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated for consenting subjects by retesting method 3 weeks after their responses.ResultsThe demographics of the participants were 316 women and 21 men, with a mean age of 22.7 ± 1.8 years. Item and factor analyses yielded 21 items with four subscales. Cronbach’s α coefficient for the 21 items was 0.930. The correlation coefficients for the Modeling Scale for Novice Nurses and the Scale of Self-Regulated Learning Strategy for Nurses ranged from 0.266 to 0.480. In the retest method, the intraclass correlation coefficient ranged from 0.771 to 0.786.ConclusionsThe Modeling Scale for Novice Nurses can be used to obtain novice nurses’ self-assessment of modeling and to assist novice nurses in modeling smoothly.

Integrating Multiple Theoretical Perspectives on Informal Field-based Learning: The Self-regulated Informal Learning Cycle (SILC)

Informal field-based learning (IFBL)—a subset of work-related learning that is informal, intentional, and self-directed—is a developmental process in which motivational, behavioral, and cognitive mechanisms interact. Despite the consensus on the role of cognitive processing in learning, research on informal learning is dominated by a behavioral focus on learning activities, while the cognitive perspective remains sidelined. In the Self-regulated Informal Learning Cycle we introduce here, we use metacognitive and memory system lenses to zoom into the (meta-)cognitive IFBL processes, considering intention as a motivational starting point of the learning process. Specifically, we draw on self-determination theory, achievement goal theory, memory concepts, and self-regulated learning models. Our cycle distinguishes five phases—preparation, action, encoding and consolidation, performance, and self-appraisal—and elaborates on IFBL processes at the intentional, behavioral, cognitive, and metacognitive level. Theoretical implications for human resource development, including the often-neglected role of time in IFBL, are discussed.

The role of blended learning in improving medical students’ academic performance: evidence from Pakistan

ObjectiveThe study examines the role of blended learning in improving medical students’ academic performance through self-regulatory learning and technological competence and identifies the moderating role of perceived institutional support in the relationships between self-regulatory learning, perceived teacher credibility, technological competencies, and academic performance.MethodsThe study was based on behavioral learning theory as a theoretical framework, and an adapted questionnaire was used to collect the data. In total, 275 medical students participated in the study, and the data was analyzed using structural equation modeling techniques with SmartPLS.ResultsThe results indicate that self-regulatory learning significantly affects student academic performance and mediates the role of teachers’ credibility and technological competencies. Furthermore, perceived institutional support is a significant moderator in the relationship between self-regulated learning, technological competencies, and teacher credibility.ConclusionThe study highlights the importance of self-regulated learning in students’ academic achievement. Moreover, it suggests that educational institutions should advance teachers’ competence and encourage collaborative learning to enhance students’ learning, motivation, and academic performance.

How does co-regulation with Adaptive Learning Technologies affect primary school students' goal-setting, regulation of practice behavior and learning outcomes?

IntroductionMonitoring and controlling learning is often difficult for primary school students. This issue is partially resolved when Adaptive Learning Technologies (ALTs) take over part of these self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. Trace data in ALTs provides elaborate information on students' learning process, which can be translated into monitoring support. However, this data does not provide insight into students' goal-setting behavior, which is a crucial part of the monitoring loop. Therefore, we developed a form of co-regulation between the student and the ALT with goal-setting prompts and monitoring support.MethodThis experimental study compared an experimental condition in which primary school students worked with the co-regulation intervention while practicing mathematics problems in the ALT to a control condition where they only practiced with the ALT. Firstly, we examined the effects of co-regulation with ALTs on regulation of practice behavior and learning outcomes by comparing the experimental and control conditions. Secondly, to gain further insight into students' goal-setting behavior in co-regulation, we examined how the experimental condition set their goals and attained them.ResultsResults showed that students in the experimental condition were more effective in regulating their practice behavior, shown by more problems solved and higher accuracy than the control condition. Similar learning gain was found in both conditions on the easy and intermediate learning topics. For the hard learning topic, the control condition showed a higher learning gain. Higher week goals than day goals on all three learning topics and similar goals were set between the learning topics. Students' goal attainment was less for the easy compared to the hard learning topic.DiscussionCombined, these results indicate that co-regulation with an ALT positively affects students' regulation of practice behavior and goal- setting behavior but does not yet increase learning gain. A practical implication is that teachers could support students by explicitly providing students with goal-setting opportunities.

SELF-REGULATED LEARING DESIGN AS AN APPLICATION OF STUDENT'S SELF-ASSESSMENT IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING

Self-regulated learning is one of the important factors in learning to control oneself in thinking and acting. The purpose of this research is to analyze how much students have achieved their independence in learning. Student learning independence includes all matters of student learning independently without the help of others, student learning motivation or things that affect student independence in learning, especially in learning mathematics. This analysis study will be continued as an effort to improve self-regulated learning. The scope of self-regulated learning was analyzed by descriptive quantitative method through data collection techniques in the form of questionnaires on the object of research taken from a population of 25 students. Data collection was carried out with a questionnaire consisting of 20 statements from indicators of students' self-regulated learning ability. In learning mathematics, students who have initiative and instrinsic learning motivation, apply learning targets, and set a learning schedule in the percentage of almost half of the students do according to these indicators of independence. Almost all students diagnose learning needs, view difficulties as challenges, utilize and seek relevant sources. However, a small proportion of students lack self-efficacy or confidence in their abilities and are still low in evaluating the learning process and results. So that as an educator this needs to be considered to be able to improve students' self-regulated learning abilities (learning independence) in order to improve student achievement.

Review on Epistemic Beliefs under Self-regulated Remote Learning

With global education shifting online during the lockdown, extensive research on epistemic beliefs has shifted towards its implication in an online setting. During online learning, students are facing significant changes concerning online learning engagement and online academic stress reduction. Previous research indicated self-regulated learning skills are essential for students to regulate stress and increase learning engagement, with epistemic beliefs being an essential factor affecting self-regulated learning. Hence, this review sets out to establish a theoretical relationship between epistemic beliefs and stress management and learning engagement in a specific online remote learning setting. It is proposed that students who perceive knowledge as complicated or developing are more likely to self-motivate and exhibit lower level of academic stress and higher level of learning engagement.

Exploring self-regulated learning and achievement goal orientation in Generation Z through “Study with Me”

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to examine the differences in self-regulated learning and achievement goal orientation between Generation Z learners who engage in the Study with Me approach and those who do not. A total of 519 learners from Korea participated in the online survey, which included 320 “Study with Me” learners and 199 “Non-Study with Me” learners. Latent mean analysis was conducted to compare the two groups. The findings revealed that females were more inclined to use Study with Me for learning than males. There were also differences in distribution by age and education level. Study with Me learners exhibited higher scores in environment structuring in self-regulated learning, which indicates a greater focus on creating an organized study environment. Moreover, Study with Me learners demonstrated higher levels of performance approach goals compared to Non-Study with Me learners. These results suggest that Study with Me learners possess distinct characteristics in terms of self-regulated learning and achievement goal orientation. The implications of these findings include the potential for designing customized learning strategies and support services to enhance the learning outcomes of Generation Z.

The Role of Mobile Phones in Facilitating Business Education During the Transition to New Normal Learning Models

This study explores the impact of mobile phone use on self-regulated learning among students at the Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology San Isidro Campus, specifically within the College of Management and Business Technology. Using a descriptive correlational research design, the study aims to assess how integral mobile phones are to students’ learning processes, focusing on activities such as goal setting, environment structuring, task strategies, time management, help-seeking, and self-evaluation. Data were collected through a survey distributed to a significant portion of the student body, with subsequent statistical analysis to elucidate the relationship between mobile phone use and the efficacy of self-regulated learning strategies. Results reveal that mobile phones play a crucial role in enhancing students’ ability to manage their learning autonomously. They facilitate access to resources, enable communication with peers and instructors, and support various aspects of self-regulated learning. However, the study also identifies challenges such as distraction, dependency, and varying access to digital resources, suggesting a need for structured guidance in mobile usage. The assumptions emphasize the potential of mobile phones as beneficial educational tools when integrated with supportive measures to mitigate associated challenges. This study contributes to the understanding of mobile learning dynamics and underscores the need for educational strategies that leverage mobile technology effectively.

Unveiling task value and self-regulated language learning strategies among Japanese learners of English

Abstract The present study explored different types of task value and their associations with the use of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies across various English as a foreign language (EFL) learning scenarios. The application of SRL strategies is supported by motivational beliefs, including task value. Although prior research has demonstrated the importance of motivational beliefs in SRL, there remains a need for further clarification regarding the characteristics and role of task value, particularly the cost (i.e., a negative aspect of task value) in relation to SRL. Furthermore, given the context-dependent nature of SRL, both values and strategies should be adapted to specific learning environments. In this study, 12 Japanese EFL university students participated in two rounds of semi-structured interviews. The first session focused on their English learning experiences, expectations, and perceptions of the value and cost associated with learning English. In the second session, they roleplayed four scenarios — a homework assignment, an in-class task, preparation for an English certification exam, and learning for personal growth — while using a think-aloud protocol to express their thoughts and feelings. Follow-up interviews were conducted after each roleplay. Thematic analysis was used to identify the participants’ values and costs and to analyze their use of SRL strategies. The findings revealed that participants concurrently hold multiple types of task value, which were tied to and shaped by their past learning experiences. Several patterns were also identified for SRL strategies in each scenario, corresponding to task value.

Does Self-Regulated Learning Mediate the Effect of Smartphone Addiction on Academic Procrastination? A SEM Analysis

Delays in completing final assignments are common among final-year students. This research aims to examine the influence of smartphone addiction on academic procrastination through the mediator of self-regulated learning. The study uses a quantitative approach, with data collection methods involving academic procrastination scales, smartphone addiction, and self-regulated learning. The respondents in this study consisted of 304 students, selected using purposive sampling. The data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with Amos version 26. The research findings indicate that (1) there is a positive effect of smartphone addiction on academic procrastination, (2) there is a negative effect of smartphone addiction on self-regulated learning, (3) there is a negative effect of self-regulated learning on academic procrastination through the mediator of self-regulated learning, and (4) smartphone addiction influences academic procrastination through the mediator of self-regulated learning.

An Investigation of Second-Year Medical Students’ Use of Outside Resources at Two Institutions

Abstract Introduction Medical students have an unprecedented number of study resources available to use. There is a shift in the frequency of student resource use, particularly outside resources not provided by the academic institution, as students progress through the curriculum. This may reflect how individual students develop as self-regulated learners. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate and compare medical student resource use at two institutions. Materials and Methods This is a mixed-methods, cross-sectional study that examines factors that are associated with outside resource use and frequency of resource use for second-year medical students across two institutions. A questionnaire was sent to second-year medical students at ATSU-School of Osteopathic Medicine and Eastern Virginia Medical School. Mann–Whitney tests were used to compare Likert-type responses between institutions. A thematic analysis was used to validate and expand on the qualitative dataset. Results Students across institutions are using outside resources frequently. We observed similar influence of factors for the use of outside resources such as preparing for licensing exams across institutions. EVMS students were more likely to be influenced by academic support staff and to use outside resources to prepare for course exams than ATSU students. Differences were noted when comparing the use of specific resources such as transcripts, self-generated student resources, and online resources generated by peers. Further, EVMS students more frequently used outside resources to study for disciplines such as physiology, microbiology, and pathology compared to ATSU students. Conclusions The observation that students across both institutions are influenced similarly to use outside resources to prepare for licensing exams is expected. However, we did observe some differences which could be explained by variations in curriculum and organizational features or programs at each institution. The results from the current study are consistent with what has been observed in previous studies. Establishing a better understanding of how students use outside resources will enable faculty and institutions to help students develop as self-regulated learners.

Self-regulated EFL learning through productive feedback in Iranian private language institutes: a case for sustainable lifelong learning outcomes

Various determinants contribute to the disappointing outcomes of the EFL programmes in non-Anglophone countries, thereby limiting citizens in these countries access to international academic and economic platforms. One such determinant is EFL teachers’ productive feedback practice. Productive feedback is embedded in a constructivist view of learning, follows a learner-centered approach to feedback, and supports self-regulation, and therefore plays a core role in the learning of any language. This paper reports on a sequential mixed-methods study investigating productive feedback practices in EFL programmes in the context of private institutes in Iran. An inventory previously developed by the authors, comprising seven productive feedback features grounded in the literature, allowed for measuring 177 participating EFL teachers' self-reported productive feedback practices. Follow-up individual interviews with ten teachers as a subsample of the larger sample focussed on outliers and extremes emerging from the quantitative data. An integrative approach to reporting our research findings on the quantitative and qualitative data as well as the literature, presents a picture of EFL teachers' productive feedback practices. The quantitative data confirmed that the participating EFL teachers rarely applied productive feedback approaches, while the qualitative data provided a deeper understanding of participant responses and possible determinants influencing their feedback approaches. The findings are of importance to stakeholders involved in EFL who have the responsibility to ensure EFL courses support anticipated learning goals, including lifelong learning opportunities and access to the global society.

Children's and adults' beliefs about the impact of emotional intensity on cognitive performance.

In popular culture, positive emotions are often portrayed as performance enhancing (e.g., "happy students learn better"). However, the relationship between emotions and performance is not always straightforward. For instance, when positive emotions become too intense, they can harm cognitive performance. Do people's lay theories of emotions capture this complex relationship between emotions and performance? If so, how early in development do children grasp this nuanced relationship? In three preregistered experiments, we explored children's and adults' beliefs about the impact of different emotional states on attention in school. In Study 1a, we found that 5- to 7-year-old Canadian children (N = 90) and North American adults (N = 55) strongly predicted that happy characters would be better at paying attention in school compared to sad characters, but only adults predicted better attention for a mildly happy character compared to a very happy one. Study 1b (N = 60) shows that adults' intuitions about intense positive emotions as suboptimal for attentional tasks apply equally to child and adult characters. In Study 2, we found that children (N = 80) perceive that the effect of intensity depends on the emotion's valence-it compounds the adverse effects of sadness and amplifies the benefits of happiness. Conversely, adults (N = 80) believe strong emotions, regardless of their valence, are not ideal for paying attention in school. Together, our findings show a developing appreciation of the impact of emotional intensity on cognitive performance-an important aspect of children's emotion understanding with likely implications for self-regulated learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).