Self-presentation Styles Research Articles

Individual Differences in Self-Presentation Styles

Abstract Two studies examined individual differences in self-presentation style. In Study 1, American students provided ratings of actual self and presented self on personality traits of varying levels of social desirability. Three major groups were identified: consistents, flexible-impression managers, and rigid-impression managers. Differences in self-evaluations among these groups were found, with consistents rating themselves most favorably. In Study 2, the effect of experimental manipulation on consistency and favorability of self-ratings of subjects with different self-presentation styles was examined. Results demonstrated that individuals' behavior corresponded to their self-reported style. Differential tactics of self-presentation were also evident between individuals with different styles. These tactics involved the tendency either to attribute positive characteristics to the self or to deny negative characteristics.

Rape Victims' Style of Self-Presentation and Secondary Victimization by the Environment

Rape victims differ in their style of communicating their experience to others in their environment. An emotional style of self-presentation can be distinguished from a numbed style of presentation. The present experiment tests the hypothesis that a numbed style of self-presentation, as compared to an emotional one, will result more strongly in secondary victimization by the environment. Experimental results suggest among others that a victim characterized by an emotional self-presentation is more strongly perceived as a woman who exhibited caution, and as a person who was not responsible for the situation. Some implications of this perceptual bias in observers are discussed.

Dimensions of Social Competence: Personality and Coping Style Correlates

Many measures of social competence have arisen of late. Yet little evidence is available as to the extent of their empirical overlap, as well as their relationships with other individual difference variables. In this study we examine three constructs: functional flexibility, self-complexity and Lennox and Wolfe's (1984; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1349–1364) Revised Self-Monitoring Scale and concern for appropriateness. Results indicate, at best, only moderate degrees of overlap among these dimensions of competence. Self-complexity failed to correlate with any other measure in the study. Functional flexibility yielded a pattern of relationships indicating, if anything, hostility and maladjustment, as well as a disinclination toward the use of passive coping styles. The Lennox and Wolfe measures provided a wealth of relationships that are fairly consistent with their portrayal as reflecting independent styles of acquisitive and protective self-presentation. However, some of the results suggest caution in accepting this interpretation. We discuss the various implications of these results.

Reactions to a Match Versus Mismatch Between an Applicant's Self-Presentational Style and Work Reputation

We reasoned that in deciding whether applicants are suitable for a job, third-party evaluators are guided by three criteria: an applicant's work reputation, the positivity of the applicant's self-presentation style, and the accuracy of that style (i.e., Style x Reputation match). Specifically, applicants who satisfy multiple criteria are preferred to those who merely satisfy one. In the latter case, reputation (superior over inferior) counts most, accuracy (match over mismatch) counts less, and style (boastful over modest) counts least. Four experiments, and meta-analyses, consistently supported the predictions that a boastful-superior applicant, in satisfying all three criteria, would be recommended over all others combined; the modest-superior would be recommended over the boastful-inferior and modest-inferior combined; and the modest-inferior would be recommended over the boastful-inferior. Moreover, these effects were not mediated by attraction, and applicants' perceived sincerity had more relevance for attraction than for suitability.

Defensive and repressive coping styles: Self-presentation, leisure activities, and assessment

The purpose of this study was to (1) extend previous research demonstrating the positive self-presentation styles of defensive and repressive subjects; (2) investigate the types and amounts of exercise and hobby activities as possible coping mechanisms among repressors; and (3) compare the Marlowe-Crowne (MC) and the EPI Lie (L) scales as measures of defensiveness. Personality, life stress, exercise, and hobby questionnaires were administered to 110 male college students. A structured telephone interview was also conducted to assess the reliability of their exercise and hobby self-report information and to further refine the assessment of these variables. Overall, the results support the notion that defensiveness and repression are associated with positive self-presentation styles and with types and amount of time spent in leisure activities. The results support the notion that the MC scale and L scale should not be used interchangeably to assess defensiveness. It is hypothesized that the MC and L scales measure different levels and aspects of defensiveness. Directions for future research are discussed.

Depressive self-presentation: Beyond self-handicapping.

An experiment was conducted to examine the notion that depressives' responses would reflect a protective self-presentation style (Hill, Weary, & Williams, 1986), the underlying goal of which would be the avoidance of future performance demands and potential losses in self-esteem. In this study, depressed and nondepressed Ss were asked to perform a relatively simple visual-motor task. Half of the depressed and half of the nondepressed Ss were told that if they were successful at the task, they would be asked to perform a 2nd, similar task. The remaining Ss were given no such expectation of future performance. We predicted and found that depressed compared with nondepressed Ss strategically failed at the task when presented with the possibility of future performance and further losses in esteem. Moreover, this strategic failure was associated with some costs; depressed-future performance expectancy Ss experienced more discomfort or negative affect as a result of their performance. The relationship between this depressive self-presentation and self-handicapping strategies is discussed.

Self-Handicapping

A study was conducted to explore the role of individual differences in self-presentational concerns on a public form of self-handicapping. Male and female introductory psychology students, high and low in public self-consciousness, chose either facilitating or interfering music prior to taking a test described either as a valid predictor of academic success or as having unknown predictive ability. In addition, in an attempt to induce protective and acquisitive self-presentational styles, hay the subjects were given instructions that emphasized the likelihood of failure, while the remainder were given instructions that underscored the likelihood of success. Males handicapped more than females. High public self-conscious individuals handicapped more than their low public self-conscious counterparts, but only when they confronted a test characterized as valid. The success-versus failure-oriented instructions had no effect in the present study.

Self-Presentation in Personal Advertisements: The Influence of Implicit Notions of Attraction and Role Expectations

Heterosexual personal advertisements from two geographically separated, local, weekly newspapers were content-analyzed. Three significant patterns of findings emerged which shed light on gender differences in self-presentational style. First, women were found to be relatively more likely to offer instrumental or `male-valued' traits in their ads and to seek expressive or `female-valued' ones, while men showed the reverse pattern. This paradoxical finding was interpreted to reflect the influence of implicit notions of attraction and role expectations. Second, women were relatively more likely to offer weight and to seek height, while men were relatively more likely to offer height and to seek weight. This pattern was interpreted to reflect the influence of the `male-taller-norm' in mate selection as well as a societal bias toward thinness in women. Finally, as in previous studies of this sort, women were found to be relatively more likely to offer physical attractiveness and to seek professional status, while men were relatively more likely to offer professional status and to seek attractiveness. This pattern was interpreted to be consistent with traditional sex-role expectations wherein appearance is stressed for women and status for men. Overall, the findings show that advertisers exhibit an understanding of implicit theories of attraction: men and women tend to offer precisely those attributes which are sought by the opposite sex.

The Problem With Self-Monitoring: A Two-Sided Scale and a One-Sided Theory

Analysis of Snyder's Self-Monitoring Scale identifies a reliable factor structure that does not correspond to the theoretical structure. Not only do the factors bear little resemblance to the attributes subsumed by the construct, but some of the items appear to assess a protective self-presentation style that is incongruent with the shrewd and pragmatic self-monitoring style. Confirmatory factor analysis of Snyder's Self-Monitoring Scale suggests that it contains orthogonal higher-order factors that are best interpreted as acquisitive and protective self-monitoring. The results suggest the need for broadening self-monitoring theory to include a protective mode of self-presentation.

SELF-REPORT OF FIGHTING BY FEMALES

SELF-REPORT OF FIGHTING BY FEMALES

Social Anxiety and Communication about the Self

The reciprocal relationship between social anxiety and the communication of information about the self is examined. Social anxiety appears to arise from people's concerns about the impressions others are forming of them. Specifically, it is proposed that social anxiety occurs when people are motivated to create a desired impression on audiences but doubt they will do so. High social anxiety, in turn, is associated with qualitative and quantitative changes in how people communicate. It is argued that the combination of an important goal (i.e. to create a desired impression) and low expectations of goal achievement produces negative affect, physical or psychological withdrawal from the situation, and self-preoccupation with one's limitations. These distracting concomitants of high social anxiety impede optimally effective self-monitoring and control. A protective self-presentational style, in which the focus is on avoiding blatant failures rather than achieving major successes, is engaged. The result is a lowered level of participation in interactions (e.g. initiating fewer conversations, talking less frequently), the avoidance of topics that might reveal one's ignorance (e.g. factual matters), minimal disclosure of information about the self, cautious self-descriptions that are less positive and less likely to assert unique qualities that draw attention to the self, and a passive yet pleasant interaction style that avoids disagreement (e.g. reflective listening, agreeing with others, smiling).

Construct Validity of the Concern For Appropriateness Scale

Construct validity of the Concern For Appropriateness scale (CFA; Lennox & Wolfe, 1984), a measure of the tendency to adopt protective self-presentation styles, is examined using a multitrait-multimethod approach. Self-ratings on the CFA and ratings by suitemates constitute the two methods, and concern for appropriateness, interpersonal trust, and boredom susceptibility are assessed with each. Multitrait-multimethod analysis shows that the CFA scale exhibits convergent validity against peer ratings and discriminant validity against boredom susceptibility, the only other variable demonstrating convergence. Results indicate that the CFA exhibits construct validity and might therefore prove useful as an operationalization for self-presentation tendencies.

Strategic self-presentation in supervision.

The effects of a counselor trainee's strategic self-presentation on supervisors' evaluations were examined. A trainee with a defensive self-presentational style takes credit for the client's improvement or blames the client for deterioration. Conversely, a trainee with a counterdefensive style attributes improvement to the client or accepts personal responsibility for deterioration. Eighty supervisors heard a tape of a simulated supervisory session in which a female trainee summarized her ongoing treatment of a moderately depressed client. The supervisors heard the trainee (a) describe how, recently, the client's depression had either lifted (improvement condition) or worsened (deterioration condition) and (b) attribute this change either to her own efforts or to the client. The counterdefensive trainee was judged to be somewhat more socially skilled than the defensive trainee, but the defensive trainee was rated as significantly more self-confident. Regardless of the trainee's explanation, however, when the client's depression lifted, the trainee was viewed as significantly more competent, self-confident, expert, and attractive than she was when the client's depression worsened. Furthermore, subjects assigned more responsibility to the client for improvement than for deterioration, but this pattern was reversed for the trainee and supervisor. © 1985 American Psychological Association.

Interpersonal Orientation and Self-Presentational Style

The relation between Horney's interpersonal orientations (compliant, aggressive, detached) and self-presentational style was investigated. Male and female subjects completed a measure of interpersonal orientation, worked on a series of tasks in four-person groups, then completed a self-presentational questionnaire they believed would be shown to the other group members. Analysis showed that subjects' interpersonal orientations were directly reflected in the nature of the social images subjects projected to the other group members. It is concluded that individuals may utilize tactical self-presentations as a means of establishing particular relationships with others that are congruent with their preferred modes of dealing with the social world.

Reactions of male raters to interviewee self-presentation style and sex: Extensions of previous research

In an earlier experiment, college recruiters evaluated a video tape of an interviewee who was either male or female and who displayed either a moderately aggressive or passive self-presentation. In the present paper, two studies are presented which replicated and extended the findings of the original experiment ( R. Dipboye and J. Wiley, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1977 , 10, 1–12.). As in the original study, moderately aggressive candidates were evaluated more favorably than passive candidates for a supervisory position and no differences were found in the ratings of male and female candidates. In addition, a short job description was found to result in less favorable ratings than a long job description and passive candidates tended to be rated more favorably than a moderately aggressive candidate for an editorial assistant position.

Reactions of college recruiters to interviewee sex and self-presentation style

College recruiters evaluated the qualifications and employability of either a male or a female applicant for a supervisory position. Half the recruiters in the experiment viewed a videotape of the candidate presenting himself or herself in a passive manner. The other half of the recruiters viewed a moderately aggressive interviewee. Contrary to the hypotheses, the moderately aggressive female was rated as favorably as the moderately aggressive male and the passive male was rated as negatively as the passive female. Although recruiters were as willing to hire a moderately aggressive male as they were the moderately aggressive female, they perceived the female's overall qualifications and her experience/training as superior to that of the male's.

Sponsorship, self presentation, and legitimacy

This study examined the influence of organizational sponsorship and a representative's style of self presentation on the legitimacy of a request, compliance with a request, and endorsement of a sponsor. Social serving sponsorship produced greater legitimacy, compliance and endorsement than profit‐making sponsorship; and a self disclosing representative produced greater legitimacy, endorsement and compliance than a non‐self disclosing representative under the condition of profit‐making sponsorship. Results are interpreted from a social exchange perspective.