Self-employed Farmers Research Articles

Does multiple job holding raise labour use efficiency of the farm operators? Evidence from rural India

ABSTRACT Amid various agro-climatic shocks when farm income becomes volatile, farmers often diversify income by holding multiple non-farm jobs. While the impact of multiple jobholding on overall farm efficiency is documented in literature, very little is known about the impact of multiple job holding on farm labour use efficiency. This is important as participation in non-farm activities alters farmers’ labour allocation decisions between farm and non-farm activities. Using a rich household level panel data from eight Indian states for the period 2010–2014 from Village Dynamics in South Asia (VDSA) Project by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and adopting Data Envelopment Analysis, we estimate labour use efficiency. Our Instrumental Variable Tobit estimation shows that multiple job holding increases farm operators’ labour use efficiency significantly. However, the heterogeneity analysis using sub samples demonstrates that the positive impact of multiple non-farm jobs is enjoyed mostly by medium and large farmers. Also, farmers engaged in wage and salary based non-farm employment experience higher labour efficiency once they hold multiple jobs. Self-employed farmers experience higher labour efficiency only if they earn a threshold level of non-farm income. Since multiple job holding improves farm labour use efficiency, more avenues for non-farm employment to be created for agricultural and rural development.

Cost of agricultural injuries in the United States: Estimates based on surveillance, insurance, and government statistics.

Agriculture is a hazardous industry but the frequency and severity of agricultural injuries are not well documented as nonfatal injuries to self-employed farmers are excluded from national surveillance. The aim of this study was to provide new injury rate and cost estimates in US agriculture. Injury data were obtained from 2018 to 2020 Farm and Ranch Health and Safety Surveys. Responses from 7,195 farm/ranch operators included injury frequency, medical expense, and lost work time data. These injury rate and cost data were used to estimate national injury costs for self-employed farmers using Census of Agriculture operator count, injury costs for hired agricultural workers using Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) nonfatal injury count, and fatal injury costs using BLS count of fatal injuries. The injury rate for self-employed farmers and ranchers was 15.25 injuries per 100 operators or 11.9 "recordable" injuries per 100 full time equivalent operators (FTE). Average costs for nonfatal injuries were: $10,878 for medical care, $4735 for lost work time, and $15,613 in total per injury case. The total national agricultural injury cost estimate was $11.31 billion per year; 11.3% higher than the earlier benchmark using 1992 data; both in March 2024 dollars. The cost burden was 2.1% of the US national gross farm income and 13.4% of the net farm income in 2019. Injuries result in significant economic losses to farm and ranch operators, their family members, workers, and society. Preventive efforts should be scaled up to reduce the frequency and costs of agricultural injuries.

Updates on private returns to education in Uganda: evidence from universal primary education policy

ABSTRACT This study updates private returns to education in Uganda using consumption measures as an outcome variable, focusing on obtaining estimates using instrumental variables based on the introduction of the universal primary education policy. Unlike common findings from developed countries, the evidence from this study for a low-income country suggests that returns to education are smaller for liquidity-constrained individuals than for average individuals. The finding also suggests that smaller returns are observed for self-employed farmers than self-employed workers in non-agricultural sectors. The trend, showing smaller returns for liquidity-constrained individuals, is particularly obvious among self-employed farmers.

A Mini Review (PRISMA) on Causes of Incidents and Injuries Occurring in Agricultural Workplaces

Agriculture, alongside construction and mining, is one of the three most hazardous industries, and is characterized by numerous risk factors for occupational accidents. Unlike other industries, agriculture faces significant safety concerns related to the natural environment. Determining the causes of accidents is therefore imperative for accident prevention. However, the difficulty in investigating accidents owing to inadequate reporting and management systems among self-employed farmers hampers the determination of their causes. This study aims to determine the factors influencing agricultural accidents through a literature review. A systematic literature search was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines. The initial search yielded 165 articles of which 34 papers were selected after removing those by applying the selection criteria. The selected papers were categorized into three domains: work accidents, machinery accidents, and farmer safety promotion. Accident causes were classified using the 4M technique: machine, media, man, and management. The results were visualized with a heat map. The main causes of accidents thus identified were insufficient operation/management, inappropriate work situation, and insufficient education/training. The findings of this study can serve as foundational data for developing measures to improve working environments not only in agriculture but also in other high-hazard industries.

One-Participant 401(k): Saving for Retirement and Reducing Taxes

The adage that farmers and ranchers are often asset-rich and cash poor does indeed appear to be true! According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), just forty percent of farmers contribute to a retirement plan. And because many farmers and ranchers invest profits in their business rather than take a high salary, they show little income on their tax returns. This means they will have paid less into Social Security and their benefits will be lower when they retire. This can create cash flow challenges, especially for an older generation of farm and ranch families wanting to bring the next generation into the operation and keep the business going. For self-employed farmers and ranchers without full-time employees, the opportunity to invest in a One-Participant 401(k) plan is a way to (1) save money for retirement, (2) reduce taxable income, (3) provide the potential option to borrow from the plan. This series of articles will review these features. This article focuses on saving for retirement and reducing tax liability.

One-Participant 401(k) as a Tool for Farmers and Ranchers

According to USDA, only 40% of farm households participate in some type of retirement account. For self-employed farmers and ranchers without full-time employees, the opportunity to invest in a One-Participant 401(k) plan is a way to (1) save money for retirement, (2) reduce taxable income, and (3) provide the potential option to borrow from the plan. This series of articles will review these features. What is a One-Participant 401(k)? The One-Participant 401(k)is a qualified retirement plan designed specifically for business owners with no full-time employees other than the business owners and their spouses. Visit with your financial planner and tax advisor if you have part-time employees and are considering establishing a 401(k) for your business to make sure you comply with 401(k) funding rules.

Impact of a pension program on healthcare utilization among older farmers: Empirical evidence from health claims data

In many countries, family-owned farms are predominant, with self-employed farmers. When such farmers reach retirement age, they likely do not have access to pensions. Using the farmer pension program in Taiwan as an example, this study examines the effect of access to public pension on healthcare utilization among older farmers. We investigate whether this program affects healthcare utilization, number of visits, and the costs associated with outpatient or inpatient services and prescription drugs. We also explore whether these effects vary by medical specialty and the amount of pension received. By using health claims data from the universal health insurance program and a regression discontinuity design, we find that pension payments significantly increase the number of outpatient visits by 4% and outpatient expenditure by 5%. We also find that pension recipients spend more on family medicine, internal medicine, and Chinese medicine. As the pension program is designed to secure older farmers’ welfare, our results demonstrate an improvement in the health component of individual well-being.

Interpretive structural model and MICMAC for facilitators and barriers to small scale potato processing industry among self-employed farmers

Interpretive structural model and MICMAC for facilitators and barriers to small scale potato processing industry among self-employed farmers

Farmers' knowledge, perceptions, and practices on animal trypanosomosis and the tsetse fly vector: A cross-sectional study around Kenya's Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve at the livestock-wildlife interface.

Background: Animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) is a veterinary disease caused by trypanosomes transmitted cyclically by tsetse flies. AAT causes huge agricultural losses in sub-Saharan Africa. Both tsetse flies and trypanosomosis (T&T) are endemic in the study area inhabited by smallholder livestock farmers at the livestock-wildlife interface around Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve (ASFR) in Kilifi County on the Kenyan coast. We assessed farmers' knowledge, perceptions and control practices towards T&T. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted during November and December 2017 to collect data from 404 randomly selected cattle-rearing households using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were used to determine farmers' knowledge, perceptions, and control practices towards T&T. Demographic factors associated with knowledge of T&T were assessed using a logistic regression model. Results: Participants consisted of 53% female, 77% married, 30% elderly (>55 years), and the majority (81%) had attained primary education or below. Most small-scale farmers (98%) knew the tsetse fly by its local name, and 76% could describe the morphology of the adult tsetse fly by size in comparison to the housefly's ( Musca domestica). Only 16% of the farmers knew tsetse flies as vectors of livestock diseases. Higher chances of adequate knowledge on T&T were associated with the participants' (i) age of 15-24 years (aOR 2.88 (95% CI 1.10-7.52), (ii) level of education including secondary (aOR 2.46 (95% CI 1.43-4.24)) and tertiary (aOR 3.80 (95% CI 1.54-9.37)), and (iii) employment status: self-employed farmers (aOR 6.54 (95% CI 4.36-9.80)). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that small-scale farmers around ASFR have limited knowledge of T&T. It is envisaged that efforts geared towards training of the farmers would bridge this knowledge gap and sharpen the perceptions and disease control tactics to contribute to the prevention and control of T&T.

Women Farmers' Awareness of Government Agricultural Schemes in the North Eastern Region of India

The Indian agricultural sector employs 4/5th of the female workforce in the country, with 48% of self-employed farmers being women. Existing literature portrays a wide information gap separating the woman farmer from basic knowledge with regards to increasing production, efficiency, and income of their farm activities. This paper makes an attempt to study the awareness of women farmers in North Eastern Region (NER) of India about active agricultural schemes in the country. The findings reveal lack of awareness of governmental agricultural schemes as a lacuna in the agricultural progress of women farmers in the NER.

Interpretive Structural Model (ISM) and MICMAC for Facilitators and Barriers to Small scale Potato Processing Industry among Self-employed Farmers

Interpretive Structural Model (ISM) and MICMAC for Facilitators and Barriers to Small scale Potato Processing Industry among Self-employed Farmers

Is off-grid residential solar power inclusive? Solar power adoption, energy poverty, and social inequality in India

With India’s soaring energy demand and inadequate access to grid electricity in rural areas, off-grid solar power is a potential alternative for tackling India’s energy poverty and inequality. However, little knowledge exists on: (1) the spatio-temporal pattern of solar power adoption by the residential sector in rural areas of India, (2) the extent to which solar power has alleviated (a) energy poverty, and (b) energy access inequality. Using panel data from approximately 9000 rural residents in six energy-poor Indian states, we compare the solar power adoption rate across states over time (2015 and 2018), examine the contribution of solar power for alleviating energy poverty, and identify socio-economic characteristics of adopters. The average solar energy adoption rate was nine percent in 2018, five percentage points higher than in 2015, with the highest adoption rate in Bihar, followed by Uttar Pradesh and Odisha. This growth was driven primarily by solar lantern uptake, with the use of solar home systems only growing by less than one percentage point. Solar energy adoption significantly contributed to energy poverty alleviation but was limited to improving illumination. Solar home system adoption improved the use of electronic appliances among adopters but did not significantly increase radio/television use. Solar power played a limited role in energy inequality alleviation. Lower caste, poor households, and day laborers are less likely to adopt solar power and less aware of the availability of solar power as a residential energy source than higher caste, non-poor households, and self-employed farmers, traders, and salaried employees.

Occupational health and safety in agriculture - a brief report on organization, legislation and support in selected European countries.

Agriculture and forestry are among the most dangerous professions in Europe, with a high level of accidents affecting the sustainability and viability of the sector. International conventions, EU directives and national legislation build the fundamental basis for prevention. The aim of the study is to describe and categorize national mechanisms of occupational safety and health (OSH) for agricultural workers in Europe, to assess the extent of implementing safety regulation, the body in charge, and to give examples of health and safety initiatives. Results of a questionnaire-survey on basic safety regulations on farms sent by e-mail to the representatives of 30 participating European countries in the context of the Sacurima COST action network (CA 16123) are presented. Due to the complexity, only selected countries are described in this study highlighting the regulative bodies, occupational health services or specific training offers, as well as the complexity of the mechanisms. One of the most serious issues and deficits of EU OSH regulation is the exclusion of self-employed farmers who compose nearly 90% of the farming population. This leads to serious under-reporting of accidents, and because one of the most common measures for the performance of health and safety initiatives are the injury and ill health statistics, better registration systems are urgently needed in almost all countries as a basis for preventive efforts. The results of the study provide a basis for raising awareness about the current OSH systems in Europe, and the importance of developing sector specific OSH strategies. The proposed activities should assist in tackling high accident rates and poor occupational health for self-employed farmers.

Agricultural Injuries among Farmers and Ranchers in the Central United States during 2011-2015

ABSTRACT The high risk of occupational fatalities in agriculture is well documented, but information on non-fatal injuries is lacking due to challenges in injury surveillance. This surveillance study explored the frequency, characteristics, and risk factors for non-fatal injuries among farmers and ranchers in the central United States. The Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health (CS-CASH), in collaboration with the USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), conducted annual surveys (n = 34,777 sent) during 2011–2015 covering a seven-state region (Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, Nebraska, and South Dakota). The average response rate was 32% in the five consecutive annual surveys. The average injury incidence rate was 7.0 injuries/100 operators per year. Most injuries (89%) occurred during agricultural work. The most frequent sources of injury were livestock (22%), machinery (13%), and hand tools (12%). Risk factors for injury included: male gender, younger age (vs. 65+ years), farming as the primary occupation, greater work time, greater land area, ranch (vs. farm), organic farming, internet access, and production of several types of crops and animals. Most injuries (56%) required a doctor visit, and 12% required hospitalization. The average medical costs were $1,936 out of pocket and $8,043 paid by insurance. The combined average costs for most serious injuries were $7,858. Most injuries (66%) resulted in some lost time from agricultural work, and 13% were serious, resulting in more than 30 days of lost work time. The non-fatal injury rate for self-employed farmers and ranchers was higher than that of hired agricultural workers reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. This result reaffirms farming/ranching as a dangerous occupation and emphasizes the need for efforts to prevent agricultural injuries, especially those associated with identified injury sources and risk factors.

Rural development and the expansion of non‑agricultural activities in the Brazilian Amazon

Abstract This paper analyzes the employment and income dynamics of rural families in Brazil's North Region, the main representative of the Brazilian Amazon. We use information from the National Household Sample Survey between 2004 and 2015 to create a typology of families based on the members' occupation in agricultural and non-agricultural activities. We hypothesize that the recent increase in employment and income was strongly associated with non-agricultural activities, reproducing the dynamics observed in other developing countries and Brazil's more developed regions. The results highlight that, differently from the rural exodus observed in the other regions of the country, the number of rural households increased in the North Region, attracted by the expanding non-agricultural occupations. As a result, the importance of earnings from non-agricultural activities and non-labor (pensions, cash transfers, among others) to family income has increased considerably, especially among self-employed family farmers. The final discussion highlights the relevance of non-agricultural activities for public policies to increase income in less developed rural areas.

Risks in the agriculture industry

The agriculture industry is characterized by a high degree of risk. This has always been the case, but in recent years, there has been a trend toward increasing the danger. Every agricultural organization's strategic management must include the capacity to identify hazards early and effectively manage them. The method and results of a questionnaire study targeted at the presence of risk factors and risk management measures in primary agricultural production businesses in Slovakia are presented in this article. The poll focuses on the risk's unique characteristics. According to the survey's findings, Slovakian farmers consider price risk, output or income risk to be the most significant risk factors, and diversity to be the most essential risk management technique. The most significant positive connections were discovered between the size of the land and the significance of price risk perception, as well as between the number of years in office and the importance of price risk perception. The legal form of company was shown to have a strong positive connection with output or income risk. The risk perception of self-employed farmers was assessed as the most significant factor.

Labour force dynamics of older people in Ireland: Evidence from The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA)

Coupled with longer lifespans, the older workforce has been of key interest to policymakers trying to sustain an affordable social welfare system in countries with an ageing population. Drawing data from The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA), this paper investigates patterns of labour market transitions in the population aged 50 and over by tracking over 4,000 individuals’ employment statuses during 2009-2018, with a principal focus on retirement and reentry into the workforce. We identify multiple retirement pathways and some work mobilities at an older age. Regarding the predictors of labour market transitions, the survival analysis results demonstrate a strong influences of institutional factors such as job sector and pension arrangements upon subsequent labour market withdrawal. There is also a tendency for self-employed people and farmers to remain in the workforce to older ages, in sharp contrast with public sector workers.

Hillsides as Part of the Socio-Cultural Capital and Development Potential of Villages/Regions (Example of Hrušov and Oravská Lesná)

Abstract This study is based on an analysis of local economic, environmental, social and cultural activities in the municipalities which were awarded the “Village of the Year” title, with a special focus on the Hrušov hillsides and the settlements in Oravská Lesná. The basic historical and ethnological features of these villages include dispersion of the population, since the development period until the establishment of collective farms was characterised mainly by self-employed farmers. In both cases, it happened with a delay – in the 1970s and the 1980s. Ever since, the hillsides and settlements have become depopulated, mainly as a result of the growing construction of family houses or municipal (cooperative) flats in the central parts of municipalities. Inspired by the theoretical and methodological framework of the authors who have dealt with the transformation of hillsides/settlements (Priečko, 2003, 2015; Huba, 1989, 1990, 2009), four possible development processes influencing the hillsides/settlements over the past decades can be hypothetically assumed: 1. Strengthening the original residential and economic function through a set of incentives. 2. Complete functional transformation of the sites from residential to recreational areas. 3. Exclusion of the sites from the category of built-up areas and delimitation of agricultural land to forest land category; 4. Combination of two and more functions with a view to a rational use of the landscape potential and preservation of the genius loci, which, however, requires the ability and willingness of the original or new users to respect the natural and cultural values of places of habitation and of the country, traditional agro-technical processes as well as landscaping in connection with the local/regional cultural heritage.

Success in Africa: People with disabilities share their stories.

BackgroundWhereas most narratives of disability in sub-Saharan Africa stress barriers and exclusion, Africans with disabilities appear to show resilience and some appear to achieve success. In order to promote inclusion in development efforts, there is a need to challenge narratives of failure.ObjectivesTo gather life histories of people with disabilities in three sub-Saharan African countries (Kenya, Uganda and Sierra Leone) who have achieved economic success in their lives and to analyse factors that explain how this success has been achieved.MethodsQualitative research study of economic success involving life history interviews with 105 participants with disabilities from both urban and rural settings recruited through disabled people’s organisations and non-governmental organisation partners, framework analysis of transcripts to chart success and success factors.ResultsParticipants had faced barriers in education, employment and family life. They had largely surmounted these barriers to achieve success on an equal basis with others. They were working in private and public sectors and were self-employed farmers, shopkeepers and craftspeople.ConclusionThe findings of this study suggest that, given the right support, disabled people can achieve economic success, with the implication being that investment in education or training of disabled people can be productive and should be part of overall development efforts for economic reasons, not solely to achieve social justice goals.

Are foresters really risk-averse? A multi-method analysis and a cross-occupational comparison

Foresters often find themselves facing economic decisions that are characterized by risk. For understanding and modelling their decisions, as well as tailored policy-making, detailed knowledge on risk attitudes is of upmost importance. However, evidence on foresters' risk attitudes is rare. Therefore, this study aims to provide in-depth knowledge on foresters' risk attitudes. For robust results, we apply two different incentivised online experiments including a Holt and Laury task (HL) and an Eckel and Grossman (EG) task as well as a self-assessment question (SA). The multi-method comparison additionally allows for testing on the consistency of these established risk measurement tasks. Furthermore, we compare foresters' risk attitudes with the well-analysed risk attitudes of farmers. Our results show that foresters are predominantly risk-averse. Self-employed foresters are more risk-averse than self-employed farmers, which should be accounted for when designing adequate policy measures. The analysis of risk attitude measurement methods reveal that the EG values correlate with the HL values across both groups, although risk-aversion coefficients differ in their magnitude. Thus, the two experimental methods are consistent in relative terms, and across occupational groups.