Self-efficacy Skills Research Articles

The Effect of Work-Based Learning on Employability Skills: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Vocational Identity

Work-based learning (WBL) is an important tool for enhancing students' employability skills in vocational education and training. Many studies have underlined the importance of a variable of WBL, self-efficacy, and vocational identity in developing vocational students' employability skills. Nonetheless, the research is limited and examined separately. Therefore, this study investigates how WBL, self-efficacy, and vocational identity influence employability skills and how self-efficacy moderates between WBL and employability skills. Four hundred and three state university students in Yogyakarta were involved in the data collection. This study used structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis to test its hypothesis. The results of the study revealed that the implementation of WBL did not have a direct effect on employability skills; however, self-efficacy was able to moderate the relationship between WBL and employability skills. However, WBL directly influences vocational identity, which in turn directly influences employability skills, while self-efficacy also directly influences employability skills. This research has important implications for improving learning that can improve students' self-efficacy skills in an effort to build students' employability skills in vocational education and training.

The Role of Self-Regulation and Motivation in Secondary School Students’ English Self-Efficacy

The purpose of this research is to examine the role of self-regulation and motivation in the English self-efficacy of secondary school students and to investigate their relationship with various independent variables. This research aims to identify the factors influencing English proficiency in Türkiye and contribute to the consideration of these factors in the regulations made to improve language education in order to enhance the level of English language education. The research is conducted according to the correlational survey method. The sample of the research consists of 580 secondary school students studying in state schools affiliated with the Ministry of National Education in Kayseri province in the 2022-2023 academic year. In the research, “English Language Skills Self-Efficacy Scale”, “Perceived Self-Regulation Scale”, “Foreign Language Learning Motivation Scale” and “Personal Information Form” were used as data collection tools. In addition to descriptive statistics, t-test, Analysis of Variance, Tukey HSD multiple comparison test, and Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis were used for data analysis. As a result of the research, it was found that secondary school students’ self-regulation skills, foreign language learning motivation, students’ gender, grade level, parental education level, family income level, the place where most of their life is spent, and English report card grade were significant variables in explaining their English self-efficacy.

IMPROVES CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS AND SELF-EFFICACY OF LEARNERS USING THE PJBL-STEAM MODEL IN WETLAND CONTEXTS

Critical thinking skills are one of the essential thinking skills mastered in the 21st century for the progress of a nation. They can help a person to solve problems by interpreting, analyzing, evaluating, and inferring. Self-efficacy is a person's belief in his ability to solve problems. The ability to think critically is related to self-efficacy. The PjBL-STEAM model is one of the alternatives that seek to improve student’s critical thinking and self-efficacy skills. The wetland context referred to in this study uses a solution of fruits that can live in wetlands as one of the learning media on electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solution materials. This study aims to examine the improvement of critical thinking and self-efficacy of students through the use of the PjBL-STEAM learning model in wetland contexts by comparing pretest and posttest values. This research model is quasi-experimental with a one-group pretest-postest research design. This study was conducted at SMAN 3 Barabai with a study population of class X MIA, and the sample taken purposively was 25 students of class X MIA 3. Data collection using tests and questionnaires. Data analysis was carried out by comparing pretest and posttest values. The results showed that the PjBL-STEAM learning model in the wetland context could improve the critical thinking skills and self-efficacy of students with an N-gain value of critical thinking ability of 0.58 (moderate category) and N-gain self-efficacy of 0.75 (high category). In other words, using PjBL-STEAM in wetland contexts is stated to be effective for improving students' critical thinking skills and self-efficacy.

The effect of python programming language teaching on 7th grade students programming self-efficacy skills

This study aimed to investigate the impact of teaching the Python programming language on the programming self-efficacy of 7th-grade students. A quantitative research design was employed, utilizing a one-group pretest-posttest model. The study sample consisted of 10 students enrolled in the 7th grade at a public school located in a rural district of northern Turkey during the spring semester of the 2023-2024 academic year. These students attended a school affiliated with the Ministry of National Education. The study group was selected using the convenience sampling method, a type of purposive sampling. Data for this research was collected using the Programming Self-Efficacy Scale for Secondary School Students, developed by Kukul, Gökçearslan, and Günbatar (2017). The collected data were analyzed using the Jamovi software. To assess the suitability of the data for normal distribution, skewness and kurtosis coefficients, as well as Shapiro-Wilk test values (a normality test), were examined, alongside an inspection of histogram plots. The results indicated that the data were normally distributed with respect to both research questions. For the first research question, a paired sample t-test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores. The analysis revealed that Python instruction did not have a significant effect on the programming self-efficacy of the 7th-grade students. Regarding the second research question, the homogeneity of the data was assessed. Levene's test for equality of variances was performed, confirming that the assumption of homogeneity was met. Consequently, independent sample t-tests were conducted to examine the significance of the difference in pre-test and post-test scores based on gender. The results indicated no statistically significant difference in programming self-efficacy scores between male and female students.

Reliability and validity study of the childbirth skills self-efficacy scale.

This study aimed to develop a questionnaire scale to self-assess the normal childbirth skills. The study was designed as a cross-ectional and methodological. Participants were drawn from two universities in the Aegean region of western Turkey. The study sample consisted of 390 3rd- and 4th-year midwifery students. Data were collected using the Descriptive Information Form and the 36-item draft version of the Childbirth Skills Self-Efficacy Scale. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was performed within the scope of validity. Reliability was evaluated with the Cronbach's alpha method and item-total correlations. A five-factor structure which explained 69.09% of the total variance was obtained by factor analysis. The dimensions indicated by the 5-factor structure were named as follows: delivery preparation and support (10 items), pelvic examination (3 items), vaginal examination (6 items), intervention during delivery (5 items), and postpartum management (10 items). Model fit indices were at an acceptable level. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale was 0.96. The Childbirth Skills Self-Efficacy Scale can provide an acceptable measurement tool for determining midwifery students' self-efficacy related to their childbirth skills.

Effect of stress on study skills self-efficacy in Nursing students: the chain mediating role of general self-efficacy and self-directed learning

BackgroundThe purpose of the study is to explore the current level of nursing students’ study skills self-efficacy, and whether general self-efficacy and self-directed learning ability mediate the relationship between perceived stress (including positive stress and negative stress) and study skills self-efficacy.MethodsThe survey was conducted among 1,289 nursing students including 795 students from Jinzhou Medical University and 494 students from Dalian University. Participants completed a self-designed questionnaire, which included the Study Skills Self-Efficacy Scale, Perceived Stress Scale, General Self-Efficacy Scale, Self-Directed Learning Instrument, gender, age, academic year, and other demographic characteristics. Descriptive analysis, independent-samples t-test, one-way analysis of variance, Pearson correlation analyses, and the bootstrap method were used for data analysis.ResultsPositive stress significantly positively predicted students’ study skills self-efficacy, with an effect size of 0.686. Moreover, general self-efficacy and self-directed learning mediate the relationship between positive stress and study skills self-efficacy in nursing students, with effect sizes of 0.235 and 0.245, respectively. The direct effect of negative pressure on students' study skills self-efficacy is not statistically significant, but it has a significant negative predictive effect on study skills self-efficacy under the mediation of general self-efficacy and self-directed learning, with effect sizes of -0.337 and -0.238, respectively.ConclusionThis study explains how stress affects students’ study skills self-efficacy, and the results have certain enlightenment significance for improving the stress management ability and study skills self-efficacy of college students in the future.

Reflection and self-efficacy for clinical skills.

Clinical skills are fundamental to medical school curriculums and typically introduced within the preclinical years. In their experiential learning, students' self-efficacy, or the belief in their ability to succeed, is an important factor in influencing clinical skill mastery. Reflection is thought to affect self-efficacy; however, its exact impacts remain largely unexplored within published literature. This mixed methods study investigated whether preclinical students' engagement with reflection affected self-efficacy for clinical skills. Two hundred seventy-three of the 289 preclinical medical students who were invited to participate responded to this 2022 study. We used validated questionnaires to measure engagement with reflection and perceived self-efficacy for clinical skills, conducting hierarchical multiple linear regression for analysis. Thirteen students participated in semi-structured interviews and focus groups, which were analysed via thematic analysis. While statistical analysis showed no significant effects of engaging with reflection on clinical skill self-efficacy, thematic analysis suggested that students perceived the opposite. The themes through which reflection affected self-efficacy were by 'evaluation of performances' against expected outcomes, 'familiarisation and understanding of skills', by 'transforming personal mindsets' and allowing students to 'connect to their emotions'. This study suggests that engaging with reflection can positively or negatively affect self-efficacy for clinical skills, depending on students' attitudes towards reflective practice. Solely engaging with reflection is insufficient to alter self-efficacy beliefs and should be considered alongside personal factors including the individual's mindset and perceived need for reflection. The medical educator's role in facilitating reflection is important, enabling students to reap the benefits of this practice.

Toxic behavior in multiplayer online games: the role of witnessed verbal aggression, game engagement intensity, and social self-efficacy

Online toxic behavior in multiplayer online games has gained attention in recent years. Given the potential negative impact of toxic behaviors on players’ well-being, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to the prevalence of toxic online behavior. This study investigated how witnessed verbal aggression, game engagement, and social self-efficacy influence verbal toxic behavior perpetration in multiplayer online games. Surveys were conducted with 647 students in China. The results showed that players who were more prone to intense gameplay engagement and witnessed more verbal toxicity in online multiplayer games were more likely to display verbal toxic behavior in multiplayer online games. A moderation analysis further revealed that the association between witnessed verbal toxicity and toxic behavior perpetration is positively moderated by social understanding self-efficacy and negatively moderated by social skill self-efficacy. In this article, the theoretical implications are discussed.

The perceived long-term impact of peer teaching in the skills lab. A descriptive interview study

ABSTRACT Teaching is an essential skill for future doctors. Peer-assisted learning (PAL)–where students take up a teaching role at an early stage of their training–is widely used in medical curricula. No studies have explored the long-term perceived impact of peer teaching. Therefore, we aimed to determine how former peer teachers reflected on PAL and its perceived long-term impact. In this longitudinal descriptive study, we conducted 42 semi-structured interviews with 11 former peer teachers at the University of Antwerp. Five of them were interviewed 6 months after PAL; 6 of them 9 years after PAL. This latter group was also interviewed during PAL in a previous study. We conducted secondary analyses of previously collected interviews, consistently comparing the findings with new data gathered from the current interviews. Using realist thematic analysis, topic summary themes were generated. Former peer teachers reflected on their PAL experience with a lot of satisfaction. Those meanwhile working as residents are still passionate about teaching. Peer teachers experienced a gain in clinical examination- and professional skills in the long-term, facilitating a smoother transition to their internship. Our findings suggest that PAL selects diverse but committed students. The longitudinal data demonstrate how PAL initiates or stimulates different skills in diverse students, including public speaking, teaching, time management, and self-efficacy in specific clinical skills. Regarding the chicken-and-egg question, our study encompasses both longitudinal cases illustrating the pre-existing skill theory and cases demonstrating how achieved competences were induced by PAL. Former peer teachers experienced long-term benefits of PAL, which eased their transition into the internship. PAL has the potential to ignite a lasting passion for teaching, providing diverse and unique learning opportunities not only for the most talented and ‘pre-selected’ medical students but also for a range of dedicated future clinicians.

A Qualitative Examination of Clinician Anxiety about Suicide Prevention and Its Impact on Clinical Practice.

Clinician distress about working with patients at risk for suicide is well documented in the literature, yet little work has examined its pervasiveness across clinical settings. We conducted a secondary analysis of qualitative data gathered from 26 clinicians in primary care and outpatient mental health clinics serving both adult and child clients on their perception of evidence-based practice use for suicide screening, assessment, and brief intervention. Qualitative data were coded for any mentions of clinician anxiety or emotional response, and brief quantitative measures were collected to characterize our sample. When discussing broader barriers to implementation, 85% of participants spontaneously mentioned anxiety or heightened emotional responses related to delivering suicide prevention practices to those at risk for suicide. Common themes included low self-efficacy in suicide prevention skills, distress related to escalating care, efforts to alleviate such distress, and difficulty related to tolerating the uncertainty inherent in suicide prevention work. Similarly, while standardized anxiety ratings for participants were consistent with those of non-clinical norming samples, clinicians reported mild to moderate anxiety when screening for suicide risk (M = 3.64, SD = 2.19, Range = 0-8) and engaging in safety planning (M = 4.1, SD = 2.88, Range = 1-7) on post-interview surveys. In contrast, survey responses reflected generally high self-efficacy in their ability to screen for suicide risk (M = 7.66, SD = 1.29, Range = 5.25-10) and engage in safety planning (M = 8.25, SD = 0.87, Range = 7-9.5). Findings highlight pervasiveness of clinician distress when implementing suicide prevention practices and can inform future suicide prevention implementation efforts.

The Usability and Feasibility of a Dietary Intake Self-Monitoring Application in a Population with Varying Literacy Levels.

Our aim was to study how hemodialysis patients with varying levels of literacy would use a diet and fluid intake monitoring mobile application (DIMA-P) and what would be its impact on their dietary behaviors. We developed a mobile application using user-centered methods and informed by the Integrated Theory of Health Behavior Change (ITHBC). Eight hemodialysis patients were recruited to use the application to record and monitor their diet and fluid intakes for a 6-week study. Overall, the participants had low literacy, numeracy, and technical skills. We collected the data on application usage and administered usability and context-of-use questionnaires to gain insights into the participants' interaction with the application. The participants' portion estimation skills and dietary self-regulation self-efficacy were assessed using various tests. In addition, interdialytic weight gain data were collected to assess the impact of app usage on the participants' health outcomes. The application usage patterns varied, with a general trend towards frequent use (n = 5) correlating with engagement in self-monitoring. The participants gave high comprehensibility, user-friendliness, satisfaction, and usefulness ratings, suggesting that the app was well designed and the target users could easily navigate and interact with the features. While the participants improved in estimating portion sizes, the impact on measuring skills was variable. There was also an improvement in the participants' dietary self-regulation self-efficacy post-study. The interdialytic weight gain trends indicated a slight improvement in fluid and diet management. People with different literacy skills can effectively use icon-based interfaces for portion size estimation and develop personalized usage patterns to self-regulate their fluid and dietary intakes. Moreover, they can experience an enhancement in their dietary self-efficacy skills by using a mobile application aimed at providing nutritional feedback. Furthermore, this research shows that the constructs of the ITHBC are effective in promoting dietary behavior change in a population with varying literacy skills. The target users can benefit from explicitly visualizing the relationship between their health outcomes and the factors influencing those outcomes. These user ambitions could be supported by developing machine learning models. Future research should also focus on enhancing the mechanisms by which technology can further enhance each component of the ITHBC framework.

Development and validation of learning and innovation skills self-efficacy scale (LIS-SES)

The purpose of this research is to create a tool to evaluate individuals' self-efficacy regarding learning and innovation skills according to the Partnership for 21st Century Skills(P21) framework. In this study, data was collected in three stages. Initially, data from 470 students were utilized for exploratory factor analysis. Then, data from 351 students were employed for confirmatory factor analysis. Finally, data were collected from 39 students to apply the test-retest method. The resulting scale comprises four factors and 30 items. These factors are creativity and innovation skill self-efficacy, critical thinking and problem-solving skill self-efficacy, communication skill self-efficacy, and collaborative working skill self-efficacy. The developed scale accounts for 50.65 % of the total variance. The Cronbach’s alpha value computed for the total scale is 0.936. Accordingly, we can say that LIS-SES is a valid and reliable tool to measure individuals' self-efficacy in learning and innovation skills according to the P21 framework.

The Effect of Teachers' Level of Self-Regulated Learning and Internet Self-Efficacy on Teaching Innovation in the Constructivist Curriculum

In the era of modern education, innovation in teaching is a crucial aspect for improving learning quality. This study aims to find out the extent to which Internet Self-Efficacy (ISE) of teachers affects learning innovation in the constructivist curriculum and the extent to which Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) affects teachers in making learning innovations in the constructivist curriculum. The research method used is quantitative with a survey approach. Data was collected through a questionnaire filled out by 97 junior high school teachers in Central Java who implemented a constructivist curriculum. Based on the results of the regression analysis, it was found that in the condition that teachers have a high level of Internet self-efficacy, self-regulated learning (SRL) has a significant effect on the learning innovations that are carried out by teachers. Another condition is the influence of SRL with low teacher ISE on teacher learning innovation. In the condition of low self-efficacy levels, SRL indicators of metacognitive skills, time management, and environmental settings did not have a significant effect on teachers' learning innovation. These findings indicate that teachers with high levels of self-regulated learning (SRL) and internet self-efficacy tend to be more innovative in implementing teaching methods that are in accordance with the principles of constructivism. The implications of this study emphasize the importance of developing teachers' self-regulated learning (SRL) and internet self-efficacy skills through continuous training and professional development programs to improve the quality of teaching in constructivist curricula.

Addressing the Gap: A Pilot Study to Improve Graduate Student's Counseling Self-Efficacy Through Online Support Groups for Care Partners of People With Acquired Brain Injuries

Purpose: The purpose of this technical report is to (a) describe the development and pilot testing of a university training initiative for graduate students in speech-language pathology to conduct online support groups for care partners of individuals with acquired brain injuries and (b) share preliminary data on students' self-efficacy in their counseling skills as a result of training. Method: Four graduate students completed an intensive summer counseling training program consisting of two 90-min student orientations to counseling skills and two online support group sessions for care partners of people with acquired brain injuries. A mixed methods analysis of pilot data collected over the summer of 2023 was conducted. Students completed the modified Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scales for speech-language pathologists within 1 week of beginning their counseling training and within 1 week after their clinical training experience. Students also submitted a short reflection paper within 24 hr of their two support group sessions to discuss their overall performance within the session and assess their self-efficacy in their counseling skills. Results: Preliminary data evidenced significant pre- to posttraining gains in two primary counseling areas: (a) psychoeducation (i.e., students' ability to provide information to care partners) and (b) empathy when addressing care partners' concerns regarding their loved one's communication disorder. Students' reflection papers illustrated their sense of growth as clinicians and paralleled the findings from their questionnaires. Conclusions: Our preliminary results highlight the importance of providing counseling opportunities for student clinicians in speech-language pathology graduate programs. Our online clinical model offers an example for replicability across universities to foster self-efficacy in students' counseling skills as part of their graduate studies. “Key” ingredients are provided for replication when developing a student-led online support group program for care partners of individuals with acquired brain injuries.

Investigating cognitive and metacognitive components of WebQuest-based education in the 7<sup>th</sup> grade work and technology curriculum according to Shannon’s entropy technique

The current research was conducted to investigate the cognitive and metacognitive components of WebQuest education in the 7<sup>th</sup> grade work and technology curriculum using the strategy of quantitative content analysis and Shannon’s entropy technique. From the total population, it was selected as the sampling method of the research, therefore, all content elements, including activities, images, texts, and self-evaluations, were analyzed and investigated. These content elements were organized as the content analysis checklist and data collection tool. In this research, for the core components, the components obtained from the research with the title of “The application of WebQuest in teaching third-grade elementary science” were used, which included two core categories, cognitive and metacognitive, along with basic themes. The results of the examination of the cognitive components showed that in the 7<sup>th</sup> grade work and technology curriculum, the most attention was paid to the component of “pluralistic thinking” with an importance coefficient of (0/128) and also the least attention was paid to the components of “constructive thinking” and “creative thinking” with an importance coefficient of (0/061). Also, the results of the metacognitive components analysis illustrated that in the 7<sup>th</sup> grade work and technology curriculum, the most attention was paid to the components of “self-efficacy skills”, “self-management skills”, and “self-control skills” with an importance coefficient of (0/164) and the least attention was paid to the components of “self-directed skills” and “self-monitoring skills” with an importance coefficient of (0/109).

Self-efficacy in communication and employability skills of English language students

The majority of the relevant studies have concentrated on identifying the potential employable abilities of Bachelor of Arts in English Language (BAEL) students in general rather than the employability skills of BA English Language graduates. Hence, it is important to know also what are the employable skills of the BAEL graduates in order to determine the areas of workplace they are to be employed in. This study aims to know the self-efficacy of BAEL students in oral, written, computer-mediated communication and the important employability skills of BAEL undergraduate students. The study is quantitative in nature, and a descriptive survey approach was employed to ascertain the respondents' employability skills in the various fields. The researcher used Google Forms for the survey questionnaire. The study revealed that the self-efficacy of the BA English Language fourth year undergraduate students had a positive opinion of their own skill efficacy. The English language students can handle themselves in company especially when interacting in small groups. They can carry out written communication tasks and also electronically assisted tasks. On the other hand, BAEL students have potentials to be employed in various industries. The researcher advised the students to be readily accepted in various fields in the workplace after graduation. Teachers and curriculum/policy makers were suggested to create learning interventions that can enhance the employability of the students in the various areas of English communication.

Examination of 21st Century Learning Skills and Perceived Empathetic and Social Self Efficacy Skills of Preservice Teachers

The importance of 21st century skills have been increasing. These skills are effective in adaptation of an individual to society. Self efficacy of an individual could influence gaining of these skills. Perceived social self efficacy of teachers effects teaching attitudes and behaviors. It also has an affect on students’ learning motivations. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between 21st century skills of and perceived empathetic and social self efficacy of preservice teachers. The research is conducted in correlational survey model. 179 preservice preschool teachers were participated in the research. The data obtained from Personal Information Form, 21st Century Learning Skills and Perceived Empathetic and Social Self Efficacy scales by means of Google Form. Independent t-test, one-way ANOVA analysis and Pearson correlation were used to analyze. While there was a statistically significant difference according to being only or first child in perceived social self efficacy dimension, there was not statistically significant difference according to age, class, GPA and education level of parents. There was not statistically significant difference in innovativeness skills according to age, class, being first or only child, GPA and education level of parents. Except innovativeness and perceived social self-efficacy skills sub-dimensions, there is positive correlation between all dimensions.

Okul Öncesi Öğretmen Adaylarının 21. YY Beceri Öz Yeterliklerinin İncelenmesi; Öğrenme Kavramı ve Küçük Çocukların Yaşam Başarısı

Amaç: Bu çalışma okul öncesi öğretmen adaylarının 21. YY becerilerine yönelik öz yeterlik algıları ile öğrenme kavramı ve çocukların yaşam başarısı kazanması için öğrenmesi gereken temel beceriler hakkındaki görüşlerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Yöntem ve Araçlar: Araştırmanın çalışma grubunun belirlenmesinde küme örnekleme yönteminden faydalanılarak toplam 14 farklı üniversiteden okul öncesi öğretmen adaylarına ulaşılmıştır. Çalışma grubunu 200 son sınıf okul öncesi öğretmen adayı oluşturmaktadır. Karma araştırma yöntemlerinden açıklayıcı ardışık desen kullanılarak tasarlanan araştırmada; nicel verileri derlemek üzere bir ölçek, nitel veriler içinse yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Sonuçlar: Araştırma bulgularının incelenmesi sonucunda okul öncesi öğretmen adaylarının 21. YY becerilerine yönelik öz yeterlik algılarının ölçme aracından alınabilecek orta puan değerinin üzerinde olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Çalışma grubu içinde 21. YY becerileri bakımından grup puan ortalaması üzerinde ve altında puanlar alan öğretmen adaylarının öğrenmeye ilişkin tanımları ile çocukların yaşama hazırlanma sürecinde öğrenmesi gereken temel becerilere ilişkin görüşlerinin birbiri ile çoğunlukla benzer olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Warrior Kids Games on Improving the Self-Efficacy Abilities and Fine Motor Skills of 5–6 Years-Old Children

The ability to have self-efficacy is an essential aspect for every individual. Self-efficacy skills that develop from an early age positively impact other factors, such as good social-emotional, cognitive, affective, motor skills, and academic. However, in real life, children's self-efficacy abilities still need to be developed because teachers still need to have the ability to choose suitable games to build them. This study looks at the effectiveness of the Warrior Kids' game in developing self-efficacy skills in children aged 5-6 years. This study used an experimental method with a one-group design, which compared the pre-test and post-test values; the sample used was 15 people, and the effectiveness, which is analyzed with Wilcoxon's formula, shows if the results of the study get a sig value of less than .05, the results obtained are .001, so it can be concluded that the efficacy of using warrior kids' games High means the efficacy of this game is in the high category, nature develops the self-efficacy abilities of early childhood. This is because the warrior kids' game can motivate children to conquer the game with exciting and fun obstacles, and each obstacle has been designed by prioritizing children's safety in playing so that children dare to try and participate in activities until they are finished properly. Keywords: Game, Motor Skills, Self-efficacy, Early Childhood

Psychometric properties of the spatial skills self-efficacy scale: A validity and reliability study

The aim of this study was to develop a valid and reliable spatial skills self-efficacy scale for middle school students. To this end, the study sampled 5th-, 6th-, 7th-, and 8-grade students in the spring term of the 2021–2022 academic year. The data were collected from 1369 students for the pilot study and the validity and reliability analysis to investigate the psychometric properties of the scale. Twenty-five subject matter experts were asked for opinions and Lawshe's content validity ratio (1975) was used to measure the content validity of the scale. The results of the exploratory factor analysis conducted for the construct validity yielded a four-factor structure consisting of seventeen items, which accounted for 41.37 % of the total variance. The factor loadings of the scale items ranged from 0.41 to 0.75. When the fit indices of the model were examined as a result of Confirmatory Factor Analysis, it was determined that the firstorder multifactor structure were within the excellent or acceptable value ranges. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was found to be 0.77 for the total scale. The results of the independent samples t-test for the upper and lower 27 % groups showed a significant difference between the groups for all scale items. The correlation coefficients of the subscales with one another and with the total scale showed significant positive moderate and high correlations. The test–retest reliability coefficients also showed significant positive moderate and high correlations. These results indicate that the Spatial Skills Self-Efficacy Scale is a measurement tool that produces valid and reliable measurements and can be used to determine the spatial skills self-efficacy of middle school students.