Self-directed Behavior Research Articles

Can stress and anxiety be assessed in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) using self-directed behaviour?

Captive African elephants used in the tourism industry face numerous welfare issues which are often stress related and linked to high numbers of tourists or human-elephant interactions. Elephant welfare is commonly assessed by quantifying faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations, and monitoring stereotypic behaviour, which are either costly or problematic in identifying underlying causes. Self-directed behaviours (SDBs), a form of displacement activity, have been substantially linked with stress and anxiety in primates, and could be a potential but not yet utilised behavioural marker in elephants. We thus explored the usage of several trunk, tail, and body related SDBs in a group of 7 semi-captive African elephants maintained at the Knysna Elephant Park, a tourist destination offering a variety of close contact experiences. Using continuous behavioural sampling (focal following), SDBs were recorded as they occurred, along with the numbers of nearby tourists (<5 m to focal; with 3 levels: None, Low 1–5, and High >5), and the nature of the tourist interaction (5 levels: None, Feed, Touch, Walk, and Ride). We then compared SDB rates with fGCM concentrations (n = 115) determined following observations (1 day and 2 days after behavioural sampling). Data were analysed using Generalized Linear Mixed effects Models. SDB rates (p/min) significantly increased during elephant Walks (p < 0.001) and Rides (p < 0.001), indicating a correlation with their usage during potentially stressful scenarios. The Touch interaction significantly decreased SDBs (p < 0.05), whilst the Feed interaction had a non-significant effect (p > 0.05), which could indicate the element of control in terms of perceived stress is an important component in welfare, as elephants were free to move away during these interactions. Interestingly, SDBs significantly decreased when tourist numbers were High (p = < 0.05), potentially due to greater quantities of high value food. Additionally, no correlation was found between SDBs and fGCM concentrations determined on day one (p > 0.05), and day two (p > 0.05). Hence, SDBs may be correlated more with anxiety or lower-level stress, which is not significant enough to activate GC production, and may therefore act as a coping strategy utilised to maintain physiological homeostasis during anxiety-inducing situations. Additional research would benefit from coupling SDB observations with different forms of physiological assessments to better understand the internal motivations, and formally establish SDBs as a reliable, cost-effective, and non-invasive welfare index to identify stressed individuals in real time and ensure optimum husbandry.

Through the looking glass: how do marked dolphins use mirrors and what does it mean?

Mirror-guided self-inspection is seen as a cognitive hallmark purportedly indicating the existence of self-recognition. Only a few species of great apes have been reported to pass a standard mark test for mirror self-recognition in which animals attempt to touch a mark. In addition, evidence for passing the mark test was also reported for Asian elephants, two species of corvids, and a species of cleaner fish. Mirror self-recognition has also been claimed for bottlenose dolphins, using exposure of marked areas to a mirror as evidence. However, what counts as self-directed behaviour to see the mark and what does not has been debated. To avoid this problem, we marked the areas around both eyes of the animals at the same time, one with visible and the other with transparent dye to control for haptic cues. This allowed the animal to see the mark easily and us to investigate what side was exposed to the mirror as an indicator for mark observation. We found that the animals actively chose to inspect their visibly marked side while they did not show an increased interest in a marked conspecific in the pool. These results demonstrate that dolphins use the mirror to inspect their marks and, therefore, likely recognise a distinction between self and others.

The effects of allogrooming and social network position on behavioural indicators of stress in female lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus)

Allogrooming serves an important social function in primates and confers short term benefits such as parasite removal and stress-relief. There is currently mixed evidence as to the immediate impact of allogrooming on an individual’s stress levels, which may be influenced by their role in the grooming dyad, position in their social network, or their relationship with their grooming partner. In this study of seven captive adult female lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) in a mixed sex group at Chester Zoo, UK, we found evidence to support a tension-reduction function of allogrooming. Focal animal sampling showed that the duration of self-directed behaviour (SDB), which indicates moderate to high levels of stress, was significantly lower in the five-minute period following allogrooming than the five-minute period preceding it for both recipients and groomers. However, when compared to match-control periods, both SDB rates and durations were significantly lower across all individuals in the five-minute period both before and after allogrooming, indicating that although allogrooming reduces stress, it is also more likely to occur when individuals are already in a relatively relaxed state. The rate and duration of SDB post-grooming did not correlate with the strength of a dyad’s bond (based on proximity). This suggests that it is the act of allogrooming itself, rather than the identity of the partner, that reduces stress for both parties. Analysis of the proximity network highlighted a clear cost to social integration; node strength, a measure of the number and strength of an individual’s direct relationships, positively correlated with the duration of self-directed behaviour, suggesting that more gregarious individuals may experience higher levels of stress. These findings add to the growing body of literature that examines the effect of the individual social environment on primate stress levels, and also highlight the need to further investigate the link between social integration and the stress experienced by group-living animals.

Cognitive enrichment in a social setting: assessing the use of a novel food maze in sanctuary-housed chimpanzees

Foraging devices are effective enrichment tools for non-human primates, as they provide both cognitive and manipulative stimulation that may enhance these animals’ welfare. We assessed the behavioral effects of a novel tool-based enrichment on 14 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed at Fundació Mona (Girona, Spain). The device consisted of a vertical maze filled with food rewards, which chimpanzees could extract by using tools. We conducted behavioral observations in two conditions over an approximately 2.5-month period: when the food maze was loaded (12 enrichment days), and when it was empty (12 baseline days). Data were collected using 2-min scan sampling and untimed-event focal sampling during two daily sessions of 80 min each. We expected that the chimpanzees’ interest in the enrichment would decrease over time, but that its use would be linked to an increase in the occurrence of species-typical behaviors, a reduction in negative indicators of welfare, and changes in social behaviors. We found that participation widely varied among subjects, being higher in females and decreasing through time. Furthermore, participation was linked to an increase in tool use and a decrease in inactivity, but also to an increase in aggression-related behaviors. In contrast, participation had no effect on the occurrence of abnormal behaviors, social proximity or affiliation-related behaviors. Finally, we detected an increase in self-directed behaviors only when subjects actively interacted with the device. We conclude that, in future studies, these types of devices should be evaluated for longer periods of time and more attention should be paid to individuals’ preferences and abilities.

Intention and self-efficacy for pap smear screening and Human Papilloma Virus vaccination among Saudi women at Najran city, KSA.

Exploring the women's intention of the core self-directed behaviors for cervical cancer prevention and their confident abilities for engagement is of utmost importance for targeted intervention development. This study investigates the Saudi women's intention and self-efficacy for Pap Smear Screening and HPV Vaccination in Najran city, KSA. It was a descriptive cross-sectional study incorporating a convenient sample of 1085 Saudi women through a social media-based four-part questionnaire: Basic Data and Reproductive Health History, Pap Smear Intention Scale, HPV vaccination intention scale, Self-Efficacy Scale for Pap smear testing, and HPV vaccination. The results indicated that 59.5% of the study participants had a low intention for Pap testing, while 62.5% of them had a high intention to receive the HPV vaccine, and the self-efficacy for both was high among 57.0% of them. Binary logistic regression showed higher odds for Pap testing intention among older women with enough family income and those with no history of Pap testing and higher gravidity and parity. Rural resident women and those having no family history of CC have Lower odds for HPV vaccination intention. Women of reproductive age and those with high gravidity and parity have higher odds. Self-efficacy has lower odds among divorced, rural resident women and those with no history of Pap testing or HPV vaccine; however, women with longer marriage duration and higher gravidity and parity had higher odds. Hence, there is an apparent high intention for HPV vaccination with a low intention for Pap testing among Saudi women in Najran despite having a higher self-efficacy. These necessitate establishing consolidated efforts for awareness-raising and advocacy programs to prevent CC.

Familiarity modulates both intra- and interspecific yawn contagion in red-capped mangabeys

Yawn contagion (YC) is, compared to spontaneous yawning, an evolutionary recent phenomenon probably linked to behavioral synchronization in highly social species that is more likely when it involves familiar subjects. Here, we investigate for the first time in monkeys which factors modulate intra- and interspecific YC. Through an experimental approach, we exposed 17 red-capped mangabeys to video stimuli (Yawn vs Control) depicting familiar/unfamiliar red-capped mangabeys and humans, and unfamiliar hamadryas. We found that mangabeys yawned more often in response to Yawn than Control videos independently from the species depicted, demonstrating both intra- and interspecific YC in the tested species. Moreover, both mangabey and human familiar yawning stimuli evoked a stronger yawning response in the subjects compared to the unfamiliar counterparts. Neither the amount of time spent looking frontally at the screen (probability of stimulus perception) nor the levels of self-directed behaviors (a proxy of anxiety) accounted for the results. In conclusion, we provide the first evidence that in non-human primate familiarity modulates both intra- and inter-specific YC. Stimuli emitted by familiar faces somehow ease the mechanisms underlying YC, and this modulation can also apply to heterospecific subjects when previous shared experiences provide the prerequisites for the development of social bonds.

Self-Efficacy for Managing Injury After Distal Radius Fracture: A Mixed Methods Exploration.

Self-efficacy for managing injury may contribute to variation in clients' support needs after distal radius fracture (DRF). This study aimed to (a) explore associations between self-efficacy for managing injury and self-reported health and (b) compare qualitative descriptions of the self-management process and outcome between high and low self-efficacy groups. In this cross-sectional convergent mixed methods study, 31 adults aged 45 to 72 with a unilateral DRF completed patient-reported outcome measures and a semi-structured interview 2 to 4 weeks after discontinuing full-time wrist immobilization. Higher self-efficacy was moderately associated with better physical, mental, and social health. The High-Self-Efficacy group described self-directed behaviors to manage injury sequelae and more confidence in their ability to use their injured hand. They also described less disruptive physical and emotional symptoms and fewer participation restrictions compared with the Low-Self-Efficacy group. Findings suggest that occupational therapy practitioners should assess and address self-efficacy for managing DRF sequelae to support recovery.

The Effect of Social Media on the Development of Peaceful Behavior Among High School Youth in Gorontalo Regency

This study aims to provide an understanding of the influence of social media on the development of peaceful behavior among high school youth in Gorontalo Regency. This research was conducted in ten high schools in Gorontalo Regency, consisting of seven public high schools and three private high schools. Using qualitative research and phenomenological approaches. Respondents in this study were high school students in class XI taken from ten public and private high schools as a representation of the population of high school students in class XI in Gorontalo District High School. The data was obtained by using a questionnaire method which was distributed to 100 respondents regarding the influence of social media on the development of peaceful behavior for high school youth in Gorontalo Regency. The data is then analyzed using the Content Analysis technique to determine the effect of social media on the behavior development of high school youth throughout Gorontalo Regency. The results of this study indicate that adolescents have various concepts of peaceful behavior and one of them is influenced by the media. The concept developed starts from the aspect of how to interact with each other, seen from the effects caused by their behavior, and in terms of the conditions they have. Peaceful behavior among adolescents includes self-directed behavior and behavior directed at others, both protective and promotive. Included in peaceful behavior are all behaviors that individuals themselves feel comfortable with, do not cause problems in society, and behaviors that foster friendship among adolescents.

Anxiety in Geoffroy's spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi): Can scratching be used as an indicator?

Self-directed behavior, such as self-scratching (hereafter, scratching), occurs in several taxa across the animal kingdom, including nonhuman primates. There is substantial evidence that scratching is an indicator of anxiety-like emotions in a variety of nonhuman primate species. Despite its importance as a window into emotional states, few studies have investigated scratching in Platyrrhines. We investigated scratching patterns of 24 Geoffroy's spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) belonging to a group living in the Otoch Ma'ax Yetel Kooh protected area in the Yucatàn peninsula (Mexico). We assessed whether scratching could be used as an indicator of anxiety levels in this species by testing predictions based on contexts and behaviors associated with risk and uncertainty. We found no effect of the subject's sex and age, subgroup size, male presence, and the occurrence of fusions between subgroups on scratching rates. Similarly, we found no effect of infant proximity on their mother's scratching rates. Supporting our prediction, we found evidence that isolation from conspecifics affected scratching rates as individuals scratched more frequently the more time they spent isolated. Being in proximity with a partner with a relationship characterized by uncertainty affected scratching rates as individuals scratched more frequently when in proximity with a partner with whom they engaged in embraces (an indicator of uncertainty) than when in proximity with a partner with whom they did not exchange embraces. Our study provides insight into the factors affecting scratching in Geoffroy's spider monkeys, suggesting that scratching may indicate anxiety in this species at least in some contexts and thus opening a window into the emotional experience of another Platyrrhine monkey species.

Self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour as an essential component of depression: findings from two cross-sectional observational studies

BackgroundThe self-control model of depression suggests depressive symptoms to derive from distorted self-monitoring, dysfunctional self-evaluation and reduced self-reward as well as increased self-punishment. Building on this model a relationship between self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour, that is, harmful inactivity, and depression has been assumed. This association has been supported by a recent study in an inpatient sample. However, it remains unclear if patients with depressive disorders report more self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour than patients without depressive disorders and if self-directed passive aggression mediates the associations between distorted self-monitoring and dysfunctional self-evaluation with depressive symptoms.MethodsStudy 1 compared self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour levels between 220 psychotherapy outpatients with (n = 140; 67.9% female; Mage = 40.0) and without (n = 80; 65.0% female; Mage = 36.2) depressive disorders. Diagnoses were made based on the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. Study 2 examined self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour as a mediator of the relationship between distorted self-monitoring and dysfunctional self-evaluation and self-reported depressive symptoms in 200 undergraduate Psychology students.ResultsCompared to outpatients without depressive disorders, outpatients with depressive disorder reported significantly more self-directed passive aggression (d = 0.51). Furthermore, Study 2 verified self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour as a partial mediator of the relationship between dysfunctional attitudes (abcs = .22, 95%-CI: .14, .31), attributional style (abcs = .20, 95%-CI: .13, .27), ruminative response style (abcs = .15, 95%-CI: .09, .21) and depressive symptoms.ConclusionSelf-directed passive-aggressive behaviour partially mediates the association between distorted self-monitoring and dysfunctional self-evaluation with depressive symptoms. Future longitudinal studies need to examine a potential causal relationship that would form a base to include interventions targeting self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour in prevention and treatment of depression.Trial registrationBoth studies were preregistered at the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00014005 and DRKS00019020).

Personality, gender, and age resilience to the mental health effects of COVID-19

RationaleUnderstanding the impact of COVID-19 on different population cohorts and which personality traits affected individual's coping responses can help identify strategies to promote self-directed behaviours, thereby enhancing and maintaining individual's mental well-being. ObjectiveUsing longitudinal data for the UK, we examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on individuals’ mental well-being, focusing on age, gender, and personality traits as possible modifiers. MethodsWe explore the longitudinal nature of the data using individual fixed effects models, which implicitly control for unobserved time-invariant individual-level characteristics. Our sample is an unbalanced panel consisting of 373,555 person-years observations, observed from 2009 until June 2020. ResultsThe negative impacts of the first months of the pandemic period are found to be larger for young adults (aged 16–25 years) and vary by personality traits. The increase in psychological distress symptoms is more pronounced for individuals who score higher in neuroticism, extroversion, and openness to experience. Indeed, for introverted young people, recent events may have actually brought a sense of calm. Other findings indicate that worsening in the psychological distress level occurs alongside with increased feelings of loneliness. ConclusionsOur findings support the theoretical knowledge that different people have different psychological and behaviour responses and personality concepts can be used when studying individual's adaptive behaviour in critical situations such as COVID-19. Our results indicate the necessity of public health programmes to assist distressed young individuals.

Insights into insect cognition through mirror-induced behaviour in paper wasps

Abstract Mirror studies have uncovered evidence for self-awareness in several non-human animals; however, this approach has not been extended to invertebrates. Here, we examined mirror responses of Polistes paper wasps, insects with high social cognitive abilities. We used a highly replicated design, exposing wasps to mirror self-recognition (MSR) test stimuli (mirror, facial marking) and several control stimuli (non-reflective surfaces, invisible marks, and sham marks). We found that nest-founding queen wasps respond to mirrors with increases in antennation and touching over non-reflective surfaces. Visible marks also resulted in more exploratory behaviours (antennating and touching the mirror), but decreases in self-directed behaviours typically used as indicators of MSR. While this experiment does not support the notion that wasps possess self-awareness, it shows that wasps respond to subtle alterations in their visual environment and appearance with exploratory behaviour. This work thus increases our understanding of insects’ cognitive abilities, suggesting high levels of perceptual richness.

Testing the contagious nature of allopreening: bystander ravens are affected by conspecifics’ affiliative interactions

Emotional contagion refers to the mechanism of aligning with conspecifics' emotional states and is thought to be highly beneficial in social group living. While emotional contagion is well studied in humans, most studies in nonhuman animals fail to clearly distinguish between behavioural and emotional contagion. Furthermore, evidence for positive emotional contagion in nonhuman animals is almost entirely restricted to the context of play. In the present study, we aimed at adding observational evidence of contagion in a positive context, while separating aspects of behavioural and emotional contagion. In a group of nonbreeder common ravens, Corvus corax, we investigated whether witnessing conspecifics in positive social interaction, namely allopreening, would influence a bystander's behavioural and, possibly, emotional state. We recorded behavioural expressions of bystanders in postpreening observation phases and compared them to those in matched-control observation phases. We found effects of witnessing others' allopreening on the bystanders' subsequent affiliative interactions but not on their self-directed behaviours (e.g. autopreening) or agonistic interactions. Specifically, bystanders were more likely to engage in allopreening themselves in the postpreening observation phase than in the matched-control observation phase, which could be explained via behavioural and emotional contagion; however, bystanders also showed elevated levels of nonpreening affiliative interactions and spent more time close to conspecifics after observing others allopreening, which hints towards a more general effect on the bystanders' emotional states. Whether these nonpreening affiliative interactions are indeed an indication of emotional contagion needs to be tested in further studies that measure, and manipulate, emotional states.

When “Blended” Becomes “Online”

With the outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020, many universities shifted to online teaching. However, some online instruction had already been implemented well before the pandemic. This study investigates (1) how engagement in blended CALL activities differed during the pandemic, and (2) in what ways the assessment outcomes were associated with student engagement during the pandemic. The study was conducted in an English for academic purposes (EAP) course at a Hong Kong university that had already implemented blended learning for several years. Adopting an analytics-based approach, 469,286 data logs in a learning management system were analyzed to measure students’ engagement and their respective self-directed behavior. The retrieved student data covered the time both before and during the pandemic. Our findings reveal that students were primarily engaged for assessment purposes; however, those in the pandemic cohort demonstrated better self-directed behavior, such as early and regular engagement. Although the results indicated a relatively strong association between student engagement and course outcomes, the students during the pandemic seem to have managed their learning more effectively.

Developing compassionate self-leadership: a conceptual framework for leadership effectiveness in the digital age

Grounded on two of the most influential models of emotional intelligence and self-leadership theory, the proposed conceptual framework in this study reflects the importance of self-compassion in leadership effectiveness. Compared to previous studies, which mainly originate in task and material-oriented cultures, the HEART-led framework, posits a fresh, dynamic approach to leadership development. Calling for a return to the primordial leadership qualities of mindfulness, integrity, resilience and compassionate human connection, this model resonates more with the much-needed leadership skills of the post covid-19, digital age. Findings from the literature review reveal that self-compassion positively affects emotional intelligence levels and self-directed behaviours, such as optimism and initiative, which in turn influence leadership effectiveness. Preliminary qualitative evidence from the framework's application in management education suggests that compassionate self-leadership can be taught and that it can be transferred to a variety of learning contexts both in higher education and the workplace with encouraging results.

Finally in the spotlight: How contemporary learning theory is saving education online during COVID

A surge of literature documenting myriad challenges being faced online during the COVID pandemic strongly suggests that e-learning scholarship has fallen short of conveying an understanding of how to build highly effective e-learning spaces. Recent stories from practitioners abound with reports of absenteeism, cameras and microphones turned off, inaction in forums and a general reticence on the part of learners to engage online. Where have we missed the mark in our efforts to have contemporary e-learning theory affect online practice? Scholarship is indicating that the root of the disconnect often lies in the conventional instructional designs being used in these spaces and the teaching, learning and assessment practices they support. In response to such issues, we conducted a qualitative action research initiative to apply an instructional design (ID) model, based on contemporary learning theories and goals, in a teacher education program in Chile. The study took place in 2020 over 2 academic semesters. In this study, we focussed on the impact of these changes on a small group of first-year Pre-service Teachers (PSTs, n=17), experiencing online learning for the first time. Pre and post interviews, an open-ended questionnaire, field notes from self-assessment portfolios and observations of the digital environment were used to collect data. We also draw on two other data sources in the same context: 1) an earlier report of this initiative that focussed on the Teacher Educators (TEs) in the same program (n=4), and 2) survey data collected in a preparatory stage of the action research on the experiences of the greater university student body (n=1,054). Evidence revealed that initially learners’ epistemological views were heavily influenced by the teacher-centric and content-driven pedagogies of earlier schooling. Yet, results also showed that the contemporary learning design framework had positive implications for many students’ social, cognitive, and metacognitive competencies. Clear signs of more active investment in social interactive learning online on the part of the PSTs and of flexible, self-directed behaviours were evidenced. The results of this study provide an empirically based practical solution for connecting current learning theory to practice in online contexts, solutions that could endure even once the challenges of the pandemic crisis are behind us.

Men's Weight Loss Outcomes, Behaviors, and Perceptions in a Self-Directed Commercial Mobile Program: Retrospective Analysis.

There is little understanding of men's weight loss outcomes and behaviors in self-directed contexts, such as digital commercial mobile weight management programs. This is an especially pressing question given that men often express disinterest in weight management programs and it is unknown how that manifests in self-directed environments. Aims. Two studies fill this gap by retrospectively observing how men lose weight and engage in weight loss behaviors (Study 1) and their perceptions of improvements and gained knowledge (Study 2) when participating in the full length of a commercial mobile behavior change program called Noom. In Study 1, repeated-measures linear mixed modeling was used to examine whether weight loss was statistically significant from baseline to 16 weeks and how engagement behaviors predicted weight in a sample of 7,495 male Noom users. In Study 2, 971 male Noom users completed an exploratory survey on the impact of the behavior change education in the program. In Study 1, men who remained in the full length of the program lost statistically significant weight from baseline to 16 weeks. 63% achieved clinically meaningful (5% or more) weight loss. Engagement in weight loss behaviors on the program predicted the amount of weight lost. In Study 2, men reported learning most about practical application and psychological aspects relating to food and psychology. This is the first study to observe men's weight loss outcomes, behaviors, and perceptions of what they learned in a self-directed behavior change program. Our findings have important implications for more effective health promotion for the many men who choose to self-direct their weight loss.

Chopped and dispersed food enhances foraging and reduces stress-related behaviours in captive white-naped mangabeys (Cercocebus lunulatus)

The white-naped mangabey is an endangered and rare zoo species, yet little is known concerning their welfare in captivity. The assessment of welfare should incorporate a net balance of negative and positive welfare behavioural indicators. These behaviours, and thus welfare, can be affected by the way food is presented based on its distribution, clumped or dispersed, and its size, chopped or whole. This study investigated the effect of food presentation on time-budget behaviours (i.e. forage, activity, inactivity, allogroom, self-groom, play) and stress-related measures (i.e., diarrhoea, aggression, self-directed behaviours), in four crossed-over test conditions of food distribution. The group-living mangabeys of Rotterdam Zoo were provided with vegetables that differed in distribution and size: clumped-chopped, dispersed-whole, dispersed-chopped, and clumped-whole. Mangabeys spent least time being inactive and subordinates and juveniles spent most time foraging during the dispersed-chopped condition, while the reversed was found during the clumped-whole condition. In addition, mangabeys stole food more often and engaged in less self-directed behaviours during dispersed-chopped, compared with dispersed-whole. In contrast, food distribution and size did not affect aggression, play, activity, self-grooming and diarrhoea. Consistent with most of the literature, chopped, dispersed items appeared to be the best, whereas presenting whole food items appeared to be the worst for welfare. In conclusion, presenting food in a distributed and chopped instead of whole manner is suggested to improve welfare of zoo-housed mangabeys.

Establishing Early Literacy Habits in a Profit-Driven Digital World.

Books are remarkable objects. They carry children into imaginary spaces and offer parents a familiar script to settle children down at night. Books challenge readers’ minds to stretch their attention span, pause and contemplate, and take others’ perspectives. Early book sharing is promoted by the American Academy of Pediatrics because of its clear impact on reading scores, which predict high school graduation rates.1Since the introduction of television, early childhood experts have wondered whether time spent in pleasurable but “minds-off” screen experiences displaces reading. Studies using time use diaries and surveys offered conflicting evidence2,3 but suggested that educational television was linked with more reading in stressed families.4However, the digital ecosystem has changed dramatically in the past two decades. Children can find their favorite programs on demand in any room of the house or moment of boredom. Myriad digital products marketed to children provide engaging interactivity but often have low educational value and high advertising load.5 By algorithmically predicting what children might click on next, platforms are able to extend viewing time and make billions in profits.6With this engagement-promoting digital ecosystem in mind, updated research evidence about children’s reading and media habits is needed, particularly in developmentally sensitive windows when such habits are established. In this issue of Pediatrics, McArthur et al7 present findings from a large birth cohort in which reading and screen use were assessed at 24, 36, and 60 months of age. The children were born in 2008–2010, so they likely had access to smartphones and tablets.With three waves of data, the authors were able to statistically control for between-child confounders (eg, family stress) and isolate within-child variation in screen use and reading over time. They found that more screen use at 24 months of age predicted less shared book reading at 36 months of age (β = –.08), which in turn predicted higher screen use at 60 months of age (β = –.11).These results suggest that toddlerhood may be a key window in which children establish preferences for media over reading as a daily activity, which sets the stage for more screen use around kindergarten entry. Daily toddler habits (eg, sleep and feeding) are influenced by the intense emotionality and self-directed behavior that can dominate this period.8 Therefore, it is possible that toddler demands for media and parents’ related low self-efficacy in establishing daily reading routines may drive this association.Like many large cohort studies, in this study, McArthur et al7 only assessed one dimension of media use: time. Now that media are engineered to engage young viewers through persuasive enhancements, more longitudinal research is needed that interrogates children’s reactions to mobile and interactive design: Are devices coming to bed and meals with them or being grabbed in the moment to calm a tantrum?9 When young children engage with apps and videos, do they go on “autopilot” and expect to follow a frictionless feed, and how does that influence their more friction-full daily interactions with people and learning? Do they take a “minds-on” orientation to screen media, as they would a book?5 As the US government debates potentially increasing funding for children and media research (ie, Children and Media Research Advancement Act),10 these types of questions, and implications for the corporate responsibility of the companies designing children’s digital ecosystems, should be prioritized.

Neonatal resource scarcity alters maternal care and impacts offspring core temperature and growth in rats

Stressful experiences during childhood, including poverty and inconsistent parental care, can enhance vulnerability for worsened physical and mental health outcomes in adulthood. Using Sprague Dawley rats, the present study explored the impact of limited resource availability on maternal behavior and physiological and emotional behavior outcomes in the offspring. Early life adversity was induced by incorporating aspects of the limited bedding and nesting and scarcity models, wherein limited resource availability has previously been shown to provoke unpredictable or adverse maternal care respectively. In our hands, neonatal limited bedding (NLB) stress during postnatal days (P)2-9 altered maternal care, augmenting pup-directed behaviors and reducing self-directed behaviors, and modestly increased the frequency of transitions between discrete behaviors across consecutive timed observations. NLB-exposed pups had lower core body temperatures immediately following the stressful manipulation and exhibited decreased body weight gain across development. However, NLB exposure did not impact adult offspring's social or emotional behavior outcomes in the three-chamber social interaction, novelty-suppressed feeding, splash, or forced swim tests. These findings add to the literature demonstrating that early life adversity impacts maternal care in rodents and can disrupt certain metabolic and thermoregulatory outcomes in the offspring.