Self-determined Extrinsic Motivation Research Articles

Coach–athlete relationship as a predictor of contextual motivation in weightlifters

Coach behaviour is an important predictor of athlete motivation (Jowett, 2017). The coach–athlete relationship can be defined as a dynamic interaction wherein the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of both athlete and coaches are mutually and causally interconnected (Jowett and Shanmugam, 2016, In Schinke, McGannon & Smith (Eds.), Routledge International Handbook of Sport Psychology, Relational Coaching in Sport: Its psychological underpinnings and practical effectiveness (pp. 471–484). Routledge). This present study explored the coach–athlete relationship through the lens of Self-Determination Theory. This multidimensional theory underscores various facets of motivation suggesting that coaches' behaviours influence athletes' motivation by directly influencing their three basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2008, Can Psych, 49, 182–185). The study builds on previous research highlighting the pivotal role of coaches in shaping positive sporting environments and the significance of closeness, commitment and compatibility in the coach–athlete relationship (Jowett & Nezlek, 2012, J Soc Pers Rel, 29, 287–301). The purpose of the present study was to further understanding of the association between the coach–athlete relationship and contextual motivation among weightlifters. Previous studies have expounded a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that outlined a sequence wherein coaches’ actions bear influence on athletes’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation by shaping their perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, J Sports Sci, 21, 883–904). It was hypothesised that a coach–athlete relationship scores would be a negative predictor of amotivation and external regulation (H1). It would, however, be a positive predictor of more intrinsic forms of motivation (H2). Specifically, those who perceive their coaches as supportive, understanding and competent will report higher levels of intrinsic motivation within the training environment. Following institutional ethical clearance (33249-A-Nov/2023-47988-1), a sample of male and female weightlifters (N = 20; females = 11) were asked to complete an 11-item version of Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q; Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2003) and the 18-item Sports Motivation Scale (SMS-2; Pelletier et al., 2013). There was no time gap in the administration of the two questionnaires. A series of standard linear regression analyses was computed using CART-Q subscales as predictor variables and each SMS-2 subscale as the dependent variable. H1 was not supported, as the CART-Q subscales were not a significant negative predictor of amotivation and external forms of motivation. H2 was supported given that the CART-Q subscales were positive predictors of intrinsic motivation subscales.

Motivation and the Support of Significant Others across Language Learning Contexts

According to Self-Determination Theory, intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation are maintained to the extent that learners feel that engagement in an activity is a personally meaningful choice, that the task can be performed competently, and that they share a social bond with significant others in the learning context. These perceptions are enhanced when significant others act or communicate in a way that encourages learner autonomy, provides informative feedback on how to improve task competency, and establishes a sense of connection with the learner. The present study used a focused essay technique to examine how the learning context impacts learners’ motivation and the kinds of support (or lack thereof) received from different people. Heritage (n = 34), modern (n = 34), and English-as-asecond-language (ESL; n = 36) learners described their reasons for language learning, and reported how teachers, family members, peers, and members of the language community encouraged or discouraged their engagement in language learning. The results indicated that heritage students are more included to learn the language because it is integral to their sense of self than the two other groups, whereas ESL students are generally more regulated by external contingencies. Although there were some commonalities, different people supported learners’ motivation in different ways depending upon the learning context. The results point to the importance of the language learning context for understanding students’ motivation and how others can support them.

An Interactive Home-Based Cognitive-Motor Step Training Program to Reduce Fall Risk in Older Adults: Qualitative Descriptive Study of Older Adults' Experiences and Requirements.

BackgroundFalls are a major contributor to the burden of disease in older adults. Home-based exercise programs are effective in reducing the rate and risk of falls in older adults. However, adherence to home-based exercise programs is low, limiting the efficacy of interventions. The implementation of technology-based exercise programs for older adults to use at home may increase exercise adherence and, thus, the effectiveness of fall prevention interventions. More information about older adults’ experiences when using technologies at home is needed to enable the design of programs that are tailored to older adults’ needs.ObjectiveThis study aimed to (1) explore older adults’ experiences using SureStep, an interactive cognitive-motor step training program to reduce fall risk unsupervised at home; (2) explore program features that older adults found encouraged program uptake and adherence; (3) identify usability issues encountered by older adults when using the program; and (4) provide guidance for the design of a future technology-based exercise program tailored to older adults to use at home as a fall prevention strategy.MethodsThis study was part of a larger randomized controlled trial. The qualitative portion of the study and the focus of this paper used a qualitative descriptive design. Data collectors conducted structured, open-ended in-person interviews with study participants who were randomly allocated to use SureStep at home for 4 months. All interviews were audiotaped and ranged from 45 to 60 min. Thematic analysis was used to analyze collected data. This study was guided by Pender’s Health Promotion Model.ResultsOverall, 24 older adults aged 70 to 97 years were interviewed. Findings suggest older adults are open to use technology-based exercise programs at home, and in the context of optimizing adherence to home-based exercise programs for the prevention of falls, findings suggest that program developers should develop exercise programs in ways that provide older adults with a fun and enjoyable experience (thus increasing intrinsic motivation to exercise), focus on improving outcomes that are significant to older adults (thus increasing self-determined extrinsic motivation), offer challenging yet attainable exercises (thus increasing perceived self-competence), provide positive feedback on performance (thus increasing self-efficacy), and are easy to use (thus reducing perceived barriers to technology use).ConclusionsThis study provides important considerations when designing technology-based programs so they are tailored to the needs of older adults, increasing both usability and acceptability of programs and potentially enhancing exercise participation and long-term adherence to fall prevention interventions. Program uptake and adherence seem to be influenced by (1) older adults’ perceived benefits of undertaking the program, (2) whether the program is stimulating, and (3) the perceived barriers to exercise and technology use. Older adults shared important recommendations for future development of technologies for older adults to use at home.

Youth athletes' sustained involvement in elite sport: An exploratory examination of elements affecting their athletic participation

In this exploratory study, we first intended to identify the underlying structure of components affecting the sport participation of 1258 elite youth athletes from the USA through a principal component analysis of 23 items related to motives and barriers to participation and created for this study. A six-component solution was proposed, including college and professional aspirations and competence beliefs, coach and peer relationships, pressures from parents and coach, intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation, external barriers, and non–self-determined extrinsic motivation. Noteworthy differences by age, gender, and race on those retained components were also reported. Lastly, results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that 28% of the variance in sport enjoyment was explained by all retained components. Given the rapid growth of travel teams, this study provides a timely cross-sectional and multisport assessment of the state of elite youth sport in the USA. In consideration of optimistic outcomes observed in this study compared to alarming attrition trends commonly found in the elite youth sport environment, this study may serve as a reference as to the elements that influence sustained participation that is indispensable in today's youth sport landscape. Results also provided important theoretical contributions with respect to motivational processes underlying elite sport participation. Practical implications with regards to the influence of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and barrier elements on elite sport participation are also presented.

Are team sport games more motivating than individual exercise for middle-aged women?

The aim of this study was to investigate the levels of motivation associated with participation in floorball (indoor hockey) and spinning, and how levels of motivation predicted continuation. A sample of 66 middleaged women participated in a 12-week intervention of either floorball or spinning. They filled out the Sport Motivation Scale in week 2 and week 11 of the intervention, and data on their continuation six and 12 months after the intervention was also collected. A repeated measures MANOVA showed that participants in the floorball group had higher levels of intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation for the activity during the intervention period, suggesting that floorball is a more motivating activity. In addition, extrinsic motivation the introjected regulation increased in both groups during the intervention period. Intrinsic motivation, as well as extrinsic motivation introjected regulation, predicted participants’ continuation six and 12 months after the intervention, suggesting that motivation as viewed in a Self-Determination Theory perspective is important for continuation.

Dog-Sport Competitors: What Motivates People to Participate with Their Dogs in Sporting Events?

ABSTRACTInteractions between dogs and humans, including participating in physical activities and dog-sport events, are beneficial for both parties. Self-Determination Theory was used as a framework to explore dog-sport competitors' motivation to participate in dog-sport events. Eighty-five competitors completed surveys including demographic questions, a measure of frequency of engagement in dog-sport competitions, open-ended questions regarding motivators, and the Sports motivation Scale, adapted to dog-sport participation. Seventy-eight percent of participants were aged 45 to 74 years, and the majority were female. Seventy-seven percent of participants reported participation at ≥ 12 competitions per year, while 23% reported attending ≤ 6 competitions. The logistic regression model was significant (η2(6)=16.68, n = 84, p < 0.05) and explained 18% (Cox and Snell R Square) to 27.4% (Nagelkerke R Square) of the variance in number of competitions selected. Intrinsic motivation (IM-to experience) and self-determined extrinsic motivation (EM-identified) were the two predictors that contributed significantly to the model. Data from open-ended survey questions indicated that participants valued and enjoyed dog sports and reported similar benefits for themselves and their dogs. Participants perceived the benefits associated with participation in dog sports as motivators for continued engagement. Self-determined motivation appeared to differentiate between people who competed more frequently at dog-sport competitions and those who competed less frequently. Understanding motivation to participate could help when promoting dog-sport competition to dog owners who do not participate or participate less frequently, including younger men and women. The Sports motivation Scale adapted to dog sports is a good survey tool to elucidate information regarding motivation to participate in dog sports.

A motivational approach of cognitive efficiency in nursing home residents

Despite a widespread concern with self-determined motivation (behavior is engaged in "out of pleasure" or "out of choice and valued as being important") and psychological adjustment in later life (well-being, satisfaction in life, meaning of life, or self-esteem), very little is known about the existence and nature of the links between self-determined motivation and cognitive efficiency. The aim of the present study was to investigate theses links in nursing home residents in the framework of the Self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2002), in which motivational profile of a person is determined by the combination of different kinds of motivation. We hypothesized that self-determined motivation would lead to higher cognitive efficiency. Participants. 39 (32 women and 7 men) elderly nursing home residents (m= 83.6 ± 9.3 year old) without any neurological or psychiatric disorders (DSM IV) or depression or anxiety (Hamilton depression rating scales) were included in the study. Methods. Cognitive efficiency was evaluated by two brief neuropsychological tests, the Mini mental state examination (MMSE) and the Frontal assessment battery (FAB). The motivational profile was assessed by the Elderly motivation scale (Vallerand & 0'Connor, 1991) which includes four subscales assessing self- and non-self determined motivation to engage oneself in different domains of daily life activity. Results. The neuropsychological scores were positively and significantly correlated to self-determined extrinsic motivation (behavior is engaged in "out of choice" and valued as being important), and the global self-determination index (self-determined motivational profile) was the best predictor of the cognitive efficiency. Conclusion. The results support the SDT interest for a qualitative assessment of the motivation of the elderly people and suggest that a motivational approach of cognitive efficiency could help to interpret cognitive performances exhibited during neuropsychological assessment.

Test of Self-Determination Theory in Swimmers With and Without Down Syndrome

Abstract Self-determination theory (SDT) may offer insight into the motives behind sport participation by individuals with Down syndrome (DS). The Pictorial Motivation Scale (PMS), developed by Poulin (1992), evaluated the motivation of junior athletes with (n = 15) and without DS (n = 15) participating in inclusive community-based swimming. In line with SDT, cluster analyses showed that intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation were all present in athletes with and without disabilities. Swimmers with DS scored significantly higher in intrinsic motivation than non–self-determined extrinsic motivation (−0.45, p &amp;lt; 0.001) and amotivation (−1.28, p &amp;lt; 0.001), suggesting involvement in community-based inclusive sport may promote enhanced psychological functioning in this sample. Further research may be warranted into the motivation of athletes with DS across longer periods of time.

Intrinsic and extrinsic school motivation as a function of age: the mediating role of autonomy support

The main purpose of the present research was to investigate school intrin- sic and extrinsic motivation, and amotivation as a function of age in a sample of 1,600 elementary and high school students aged 9-17years. First, results revealed a system- atic decrease in intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation from age 9 to 12years, a slow stabilization until 15years old, followed by an increase after that point. Second, non self-determined extrinsic motivation showed a decrease up to 12yearsoldandaslowstabilizationafterthatpoint.Finally,amotivationwasrelatively low and stable from age 9 to 17years. Of importance is that the present results also revealed that teacher autonomy support mediated the age-school motivation relation- ships. The present results underscore the importance of a better understanding of the mechanisms through which lower intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivationinolderstudentstakeplace,eventuallyleadingtoappropriateinterventions and optimal motivation in students of all ages.

Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction, Motivation, and Exercise in Older Adults

A predominate motivation theory used to predict exercise behavior is self-determination theory, which posits that motivation is driven by satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This study investigates the relationship between motivation, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and exercise in a sample of older adults. Significant differences were found between older adult exercisers and nonexercisers in intrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic motivation, nonself-determined extrinsic motivation, autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This study suggests that self-determination theory is a suitable framework to investigate older adult exercise behaviors.

Temporal Ordering of Motivational Quality and Athlete Burnout in Elite Sport

Using self-determination theory as the theoretical framework, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of the relationships between motivation and athlete burnout. We tested four hypotheses: H0: low self-determination (SD) does not precede burnout, and burnout does not precede low SD; H1: low SD precedes burnout; H2: burnout precedes low SD; and H3: burnout and motivation have a reciprocal relationship. We used a two-wave design, with the follow-up assessment 4 months after baseline. Elite New Zealand athletes (n=119, mean age=24.74 yr (standard deviation=8.54 yr); 57.14% of whom were females) completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling of cross-lagged panel models was used to test the hypotheses. The relationship between motivation and burnout varied depending on the type of motivation assessed. Analyses related to overall levels of self-determined motivation, amotivation, and controlled forms of extrinsic motivation provided support for H1: low SD precedes burnout. When compared with external regulation, introjected regulation seemed to be a clearer antecedent of athlete burnout. Analyses related to the self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation provided support for H2: burnout precedes low SD. The only analyses in which the null hypothesis could not be rejected were those relating to intrinsic motivation. Finally, there was little support for a reciprocal effects model. Low levels of self-determination may lead to increases in athlete burnout, whereas athlete burnout may precede decrements in self-determined extrinsic motivation. Particular efforts could be made to help support the basic psychological needs of athletes with controlled forms of motivation, thereby leading to an internalization of motivation and decreased risk of burnout.

The development and validation of the pictorial motivation scale in physical activity

The purpose of the present research was to report the validation of the pictorial motivation scale in English. This scale is designed for adolescents and adults with an intellectual disability who are unable to independently read a questionnaire. The scale has a picture and phrase depicting 16 items related to participation in sport and physical activity; four for each of the following subscales, intrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic motivation, non self-determined extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Phase 1 of the research describes the formal translation of the scale from French to English. Results from three studies conducted with Special Olympians (Phase 2) and adolescents in a special school (Phases 3 and 4) provided support for the internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and factorial and construct validity of the scale. Overall, the scale would appear to be sufficiently reliable and valid to warrant its continued use and further development.

Older adults' intrinsic and extrinsic motivation toward physical activity.

To examine how motives discriminate 3 physical activity levels of inactive, active, and sustained maintainers. Six hundred forty-five adults (M age = 63.8) completed stage-of-change and Exercise Motivations Inventory (EMI-2) scales. Exploratory factor analysis established psychometric properties of the EMI-2 suitable for older adults. Six factors emerged in the EMI-2: health and fitness, social/emotional benefits, weight management, stress management, enjoyment, and appearance. Enjoyment contributed most to differentiating activity levels. Moderators of age and gender were delineated. Intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation distinguish older adults' activity levels.

Orientation motivationnelle et symptomatologie dépressive chez la personne âgée

This article is focused on motivation and depression in later life. For about 20 years, research on the motivation of elders has underlined the importance of the cognitive evaluation of life contexts, notably in terms of self-determination. This cognitive evaluation determines the motivational orientation for daily activities (notably the levels of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation). The purpose of this research was specifically to study the relationships between the existence of four types of motivation (intrinsic, self-determined extrinsic, nonself-determined extrinsic and amotivation) and the consequences for adaptation and well-being. The study, therefore, focused on the possible links between motivation and geriatric-depression level and explored the nature of this link. Forty persons aged 60 or over (31 women: 80.48+/-9.24; nine men: 80.56+/-9.48) who live in nursing homes (20 elderly) or in their own homes (20 elderly) were enrolled. Elderly persons were assessed with specific and standardized tools: the Elderly Motivation Scale (EMS, in the French version: EMPA) and the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). For the statistical analyses of the results, correlations and Mann-Whitney test were used. We found that in elderly people, the motivational styles (the four types of motivation) can be reliably measured and are related to geriatric depression. First, significant positive links were noticed between intrinsic motivation and depression scores and between self-determined extrinsic motivation and depression scores. Conversely, significant negative links were noticed between nonself-determined extrinsic motivation and depression scores and between amotivation and depression scores. The most self-determined elders presented low-depression levels, whereas the more nonself-determined elders showed high-depression levels. Moreover, motivational styles significantly differed in the two groups (depressive or not depressive). The most depressive elders showed significantly lower-intrinsic and self-determined motivation levels. Our results support the hypothesis that motivational styles are related to important aspects (adaptation, well-being and depression) of the life of elderly people. Self-determination theory appears of high interest in research on aging and especially on the determinants of well-being in the elders.

Values and Creativity

ABSTRACT Does extrinsic motivation inhibit or foster creativity? Whereas previous researchers examined the effects of externally controlled extrinsic motivation on creativity, we focus on the effects of self-determined extrinsic motivation arising from one's personally held core values. In this study, we present a theoretical argument which predicts that (a) creative behavior is fostered by certain value types, inhibited by other value types, and holistically related to the total integrative-dynamic pattern of value types identified by Schwartz (1994), and (b) creative performance is synergistically promoted by the interaction between the Self-Direction value type and intrinsic motivational orientation. These hypotheses were tested in a study of 248 undergraduates whose value priorities and intrinsic motivational orientation were measured by self-report and whose creative performance was assessed across multiple tasks in the verbal, artistic, and mathematical domains. All predictions were supported.

An Analysis Of Motivations For Healthful Diet And Physical Activity

The United States government has published recommendations for both diet and physical activity in the form of Food Guide and Physical Activity Pyramids. These pyramids were designed to serve as guides for making healthy choices. No research to date has compared these two tools with respect to motivation to comply with their respective recommendations. PURPOSE Determine the motivation for the Food Guide and Physical Activity Pyramids. METHODS One hundred twelve participants (51 male, 61 female, mean age = 23.6 years) were given a packet of questionnaires related to the pyramids and other motivational variables. One group of items assessed whether motivations to engage in healthful diet and regular physical activity was due to intrinsic or extrinsic motives. A second group of items assessed whether motivation to comply with recommendations was due to concerns related to physical health or physical appearance. RESULTS Data were analyzed using pairwise comparisons. Measurements of intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation were significantly higher for physical activity than healthful diet (p < .001). Measurements of other-determined extrinsic motivation and amotivation were not different (p>.05). Additionally, analysis of the basis of motivation to comply with recommendations indicated that current motivations are based more on physical health than physical appearance (p < .05) and that participants anticipated that their motivations would become increasingly health oriented with increased age (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS These findings provide evidence that motivations to comply with physical activity recommendations are more likely to be desirable than those associated with dietary choices. The implication is that motivations to adhere to a healthful diet are not likely to lead to successful behavior change in comparison to physical activity. Additionally, the findings indicate that the participants were more motivated by health outcomes than appearance outcomes and that a desire to be healthy would be even more dominant with increased age. This research provides the basis for further inquiry regarding the influence of the pyramids on motivation and health outcomes.

Exercise causality orientations, behavioural regulation for exercise and stage of change for exercise: exploring their relationships

Abstract Objectives The objectives are to (a) explore the relationship between exercise causality orientations and stages of change and in doing so highlight any motivational changes that accompany movement through the stages, and (b) investigate the relative importance of exercise causality orientations and behavioural regulations in discriminating stage of change. Methods One hundred and one female ( M age =28.85±11.21) and 83 male ( M age =33.99±13.86) volunteers completed the Stage of Change for Exercise Ladder, the Exercise Causality Orientations Scale (ECOS) and the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ). Results For both males and females, levels of the autonomy orientation increased across the stages of change while levels of the control orientation remained stable. Taking the ECOS and BREQ in combination, only identified and introjected regulation distinguished stage of change. Less self-determined regulations decreased as exercise participation increased but intrinsic regulation was not increased by longer participation in exercise. Conclusions The autonomy orientation and more self-determined extrinsic motivation were related to later stages of change for exercise but the nature of this study precludes the ability to make causal inferences. The BREQ subscales seem to be more important for discriminating stage of change than the ECOS subscales, however, the causal relationship between the development of causality orientations and behavioural regulations is not yet known.

The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model

The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.

Motivational Determinants of Flow: Contributions From Self-Determination Theory

The study examined the relationships between different types of situational motivation and flow and situational motivational determinants (perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and the experience of flow. Immediately following a swim practice, 203 Canadian master's-level swimmers completed a questionnaire that assessed different variables. Results indicated that situational self-determined forms of motivation (intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation) and perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were positively related to flow, whereas amotivation was negatively related to flow.

Coping With the Less Interesting Aspects of Training: Toward a Model of Interest and Motivation Enhancement in Individual Sports

Boring activities are not always avoidable. Yet, one can ask: Is boredom inevitable? Studies in the field of interest self-regulation suggest that it might be possible to transcend boredom and enhance motivation through the use of interest-enhancing strategies (IESs). The goal of this project is to build a model of interest and motivation self-regulation in the context of individual sports. Four IESs are examined: creating challenges for oneself, adding variety to the task, providing oneself with self-relevant rationales for performing the task, and exploiting stimulation from other sources than the task itself. The proposed model comprises the following hypotheses: (a) IESs predict higher levels of interest, in both interesting and less interesting tasks; (b) Interest in ''less interesting'' tasks predicts higher levels of self-determined extrinsic motivation; and (c) Interest in ''interesting'' tasks and self-determined extrinsic motivation predict higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Although exploiting stimulation displayed an unexpected direct negative relation with extrinsic motivation, the remainder of the results supports the proposed hypotheses. The discussion offers suggestions for future research on the role played by self-influence in the regulation of interest and motivation.