Measures Of Self-control Research Articles

New Applications of Self-Control Theory to Computer-Focused Cyber Deviance and Victimization: A Comparison of Cognitive and Behavioral Measures of Self-Control and Test of Peer Cyber Deviance and Gender as Moderators

This study tests the effects of behavioral and cognitive measures of self-control on computer-focused cyber deviance and cyber victimization with survey data from 1,036 adult employees. We examine moderating effects of cyber deviant peers and gender in the relationship between self-control, and cyber deviance and victimization. Cognitive and behavioral measures of self-control are negativity associated with cyber deviance, whereas only behavioral self-control predicted reduced cyber victimization. Moderation analyses show that cyber deviant peer associations condition the relationship between self-control, and both cyber deviance and victimization. Gender moderation models reveal no consistent significant effects. The results have implications for the understanding of cognitive predictors of computer-focused cybercrime and victimization, as well as institutional cybercrime prevention policies. Our findings can inform the future integration of self-control and social learning theories in cyberspace.

The role of off-task thoughts and behaviors in linking self-control with achievement-related and well-being outcomes

Self-control has been linked to a range of important outcomes. However, little research has examined how individuals high in self-control achieve these positive outcomes. This research investigated the day-to-day behaviors and experiences that may be responsible for these links, focusing on off-task thoughts/behaviors. Specifically, two studies examined mind wandering, distractions, interruptions, and procrastination as mechanisms linking self-control with task completion, GPA, job performance, and affect. Participants initially completed measures of dispositional self-control. They were then sent survey links twice a day for seven days to assess day-to-day behaviors/experiences. Results supported the role of off-task thoughts/behaviors in relationships between self-control and task completion, GPA, job performance, and affect. These findings shed new light on how self-control leads to valued outcomes.

Interference scores have inadequate concurrent and convergent validity: Should we stop using the flanker, Simon, and spatial Stroop tasks?

BackgroundTwo-hundred one college undergraduates completed four nonverbal interference tasks (Simon, spatial Stroop, vertical Stroop, and flanker) and trait scales of self-control and impulsivity. Regression analyses tested 11 predictors of the composite interference scores derived from three of the four tasks and each task separately. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationships between laboratory measures of self-control, self-report measures, and the degree to which control might be related to extensive experience in activities that logically require self-control.ResultsFluid intelligence and sex were significant predictors of the composite measure, but bilingualism, music training, video gaming, mindfulness/meditation, self-control, impulsivity, SES, and physical exercise were not.ConclusionsCommon laboratory measures of inhibitory control do not correlate with self-reported measures of self-control or impulsivity and consequently appear to be measuring different constructs. Bilingualism, mindfulness/meditation, playing action video games, and music training or performance provide weak and inconsistent improvements to laboratory measures of interference control. Flanker, Simon, and spatial Stroop effects should not be used or interpreted as measures of domain-general inhibitory control.

Why Self-Report Measures of Self-Control and Inhibition Tasks Do Not Substantially Correlate

Trait self-control is often defined as the ability to inhibit dominant responses including thoughts, emotions, and behavioral impulses. Despite the pivotal role of inhibition for trait self-control, a growing body of evidence found small-to-zero correlations between self-report measures of trait self-control and behavioral inhibition tasks. These observations seem puzzling considering that both types of measures are often seen as operationalizations of the same or at least closely related theoretical constructs. Previous explanations for this non-correspondence focused on psychometric properties of the measures. Here, we discuss three further factors that may explain the empirical non-correspondence between trait self-control scales and behavioral inhibition tasks: (1) the distinction between typical and maximum performance, (2) the measurement of single versus repeated performance, and (3) differences between impulses in different domains. Specifically, we argue that a) self-report measures of trait self-control are designed to assess typical performance, and relative to these, behavioral inhibition tasks are designed to assess maximum performance; b) self-report measures of trait self-control capture central tendencies of aggregates of many different instances of behavior, whereas behavioral inhibition tasks are momentary, one-time state measures; and c) most self-report measures of trait self-control are designed to measure general, cross-domain inhibition, whereas behavioral inhibition tasks also measure narrower, domain-specific inhibition to a substantial degree. In conclusion, we argue that it is implausible to hypothesize more than a low correlation between self-report measures of trait self-control and behavioral inhibition tasks as they genuinely focus on different aspects of the theoretical construct of self-control. We also discuss the broader implications of these issues for self-control as a theoretical construct and its appropriate measurement.

Faith in Trump, Moral Foundations, and Social Distancing Defiance During the Coronavirus Pandemic

Purpose: Over the past several months, the coronavirus has infected nearly 2 million Americans and killed more than 100,000. Governors have issued stay-at-home orders, and prosecutors have filed criminal charges against individuals for defying those orders. And yet, many Americans have still refused to keep their distance from their fellow citizens, even if they had symptoms of infection. This study explores the underlying causes for those who intend to defy these norms. Methods: Using national-level data from a March 2020 survey of 989 Americans, we explore intentions to defy social distancing norms by testing an interactionist theory of foundation-based moral behavior in combination with faith in President Trump. The analysis controls for a range of variables, including measures of low self-control and deterrence. Results: Low self-control is the strongest predictor of defiance intentions. Consistent with interactionist theory, defiance intentions are significantly higher for those holding a specific faith in Trump and those endorsing binding foundation. Furthermore, the interaction of these two variables is significant and in the predicted direction. The results hold for two different measures of faith in Trump. Conclusions: Even with a strong effect for low self-control, faith in President Trump is a strong predictor of refusal to social distance, and its effect is largest among individuals high in binding foundations.

Faith in Trump, Moral Foundations, and Social Distancing Defiance during the Coronavirus Pandemic

Purpose: Over the past several months, the coronavirus has infected more than six million Americans and killed nearly 200,000. Governors have issued stay-at-home orders, and prosecutors have filed criminal charges against individuals for defying those orders. And yet many Americans have still refused to keep their distance from their fellow citizens, even if they had symptoms of infection. The authors explore the underlying causes for those who intend to defy these norms. Methods: Using national-level data from a March 2020 survey of 989 Americans, the authors explore intentions to defy social distancing norms by testing an interactionist theory of foundation-based moral behavior in combination with faith in President Trump during the coronavirus pandemic. The analysis controls for a range of variables, including measures of low self-control and deterrence. Results: Low self-control is the strongest predictor of defiance intentions. Consistent with interactionist theory, defiance intentions are significantly higher for those holding specific faith in Trump and those endorsing binding foundations. Furthermore, the interaction of these two variables is significant and in the predicted direction. The results hold for two different measures of faith in Trump. Conclusions: Even with a strong effect for low self-control, faith in President Trump is a strong predictor of refusal to social-distance, and its effect is largest among individuals high in binding foundations.

Supplemental Material for The MASC: A Novel Multidimensional Measure of Self-Control

Supplemental Material for The MASC: A Novel Multidimensional Measure of Self-Control

Effects of self-control on the tolerance to high-intensity exercise

High-intensity exercise has efficient elements such as time saving and metabolic benefits, while it is physiologically demanding, and requires stronger mental capacity than traditional exercise regimens. The present study aimed to examine differences in exercise intensity relative to self-control in exercise participants. Participants completed the multistage 20 m shuttle run test (MST) in an indoor gymnasium under the same environmental condition. Participants (N = 81; male n = 55; Mage = 23.06 years) completed measures of self-control and motivation for participation in aerobic exercises. Additionally, heart rate, high-intensity exercise volume, and perceived exertion were used to measure exercise intensity. Self-control has a significant positive correlation with several variables that measure exercise intensity. In addition, hierarchical regression analyses showed that trait self-control positively and significantly predict exercise intensity after controlling for self-determined motivation. Trait self-control is a significant psychological variable to account for behaviours related to high-intensity exercise and it might be more important for the tolerance the exercise intensity than one’s self-determined motivation to it.

Emotion Suppression Decreases Delay Discounting for Monetary Outcomes

Emotion and emotion regulation figure prominently in self-control, which is a fundamental process that underlies a range of health problem behaviors. However, most research to date on these phenomena are based on correlational studies using self-report measures prone to retrospective bias or experimental studies using idiosyncratic self-control outcomes that may lack theoretical specificity. This study sought to expand the previous literature by prompting emotion and emotion suppression and measuring their impact on delay discounting, a theoretically derived measure of self-control. Adult undergraduates (n = 179) were exposed to one of three manipulations of affect (i.e., positive, neutral, and negative) using previously validated film clips. Half of these participants were instructed to suppress their emotional responses to the film clips. Following the film clips, all participants completed the delay discounting task. There were no main effects of specific emotions on delay discounting. There was a significant main effect for suppression group on delay discounting such that the suppression of emotion was accompanied by higher rates of self-control using the delay discounting task. The findings suggest, contrary to our expectation, that the suppression of emotion leads to short-term increases in self-control measured using the delay discounting task. Continued research on these complex relationships is warranted.

Assessing Similarities and Differences in Self-Control between Police Officers and Offenders

Research provides consistent evidence that non-offenders have greater self-control than offenders. While such differences exist across a range of samples, the ability of measures of self-control to discriminate between different groups merits additional attention. We advance research on this topic by comparing the self-control of police officers to offenders. Results indicate police officers score higher than offenders do on global self-control. Results also indicate that, when analyzing differences across the six dimensions of self-control conceptualized by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), police officers consistently score lower in impulsivity, self-centeredness, and anger than offenders. At the same time, police officers have a greater preference for physical activities than offenders do, and the risk-seeking and simple tasks dimensions are inconsistently associated with being a police officer relative to an offender across the different models estimated. Discussion centers on the implications of these findings for theory and for the screening of potential police recruits.

A Psychometric Analysis of the Brief Self-Control Scale.

The Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) is a widely used measure of self-control, a construct associated with beneficial psychological outcomes. Several studies have investigated the psychometric properties of the BSCS but have failed to reach consensus. This has resulted in an unstable and ambiguous understanding of the scale and its psychometric properties. The current study sought resolution by implementing scale evaluation approaches guided by modern psychometric literature. Additionally, our goal was to provide a more comprehensive item analysis via the item response theory (IRT) framework. Results from the current study support both unidimensional and multidimensional factor structures for the 13-item version of the BSCS. The addition of an IRT analysis provided a new perspective on item- and test-level functioning. The goal of a more defensible psychometric grounding for the BSCS is to promote greater consistency, stability, and trust in future results.

Volumetric Prefrontal Cortex Alterations in Patients With Alcohol Dependence and the Involvement of Self-Control.

Background:Aspects of self-control such as sensation seeking and impaired impulse control have been implicated in alcohol dependence (ALC). Conversely, sensation seeking has been ascribed a possible protective role in stress-related psychopathologies. We therefore examined gray matter (GM) morphology in individuals with ALC, focusing on differences in prefrontal regions that have been associated with self-control. Additionally, we accounted for differences in lifetime alcohol intake regarding self-control measures and cortical structures in ALC patients.Methods:With voxel-based morphometry (VBM) focusing on prefrontal a priori defined regions of interest, we assessed a group of 62 detoxified ALC patients and 62 healthy controls (HC). ALC patients were subsequently divided into high (n = 9) and low consumers (n = 53). Self-control was assessed by use of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale and the Sensation Seeking Scale.Results:Compared to HC, ALC had significantly less GM volume in bilateral middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and right medial prefrontal cortex as well as in the right anterior cingulate. High-consuming ALC showed smaller GM in right orbitofrontal cortex as well as lower sensation seeking scores than low consumers. In low-consuming ALC, right MFG-GM was positively associated with magnitude of sensation seeking; particularly, larger MFG-GM correlated with greater thrill and adventure seeking.Conclusion:Thus, our findings (i) indicate deficient GM volume in prefrontal areas related to self-control and (ii) might accentuate the phenotypic divergence of ALC patients and emphasize the importance of the development of individual treatment options.

Costly self-control and limited willpower

In Gul and Pesendorfer (Econometrica 69(6):1403–1435, 2001), a decision-maker, when facing a choice among menus, evaluates each menu in terms of the maximum value of its commitment utility net of self-control costs. This paper extends the model such that this maximum is constrained by the condition that the cost of self-control cannot exceed the decision-maker’s stock of willpower w. Four of the five axioms of our characterization are as in their Theorem 3 except that the independence axiom is restricted to a subset of menus. We add one new axiom to regulate willpower as a limited (cognitive) resource in which the available “stock” does not vary across menus. In our characterization, choices within menus that satisfy WARP reveal a constant trade-off between commitment and temptation utilities. However, it is the discontinuity of preferences over menus (along with violations of WARP for choices within menus) that reveals w (measured in units of temptation utility), allowing for a behaviorally meaningful comparative measure of self-control across individuals.

Delayed gratification in New Caledonian crows and young children: influence of reward type and visibility

Self-control underlies cognitive abilities such as decision making and future planning. Delay of gratification is a measure of self-control and involves obtaining a more valuable outcome in the future by tolerating a delay or investing a greater effort in the present. Contextual issues, such as reward visibility and type, may influence delayed gratification performance, although there has been limited comparative investigation between humans and other animals, particularly non-primate species. Here, we adapted an automated ‘rotating tray’ paradigm used previously with capuchin monkeys to test for delay of gratification ability that requires little pre-test training, where the subject must forgo an immediate, less preferred reward for a delayed, more preferred one. We tested New Caledonian crows and 3–5-year-old human children. We manipulated reward types to differ in quality or quantity (Experiments 1 and 2) as well as visibility (Experiment 2). In Experiments 1 and 2, both species performed better when the rewards varied in quality as opposed to quantity, though performed above chance in both conditions. In Experiment 1, both crows and children were able to delay gratification when both rewards were visible. In Experiment 2, 5-year-old children outperformed 3- and 4-year olds, though overall children still performed well, while the crows struggled when reward visibility was manipulated, a result which may relate to difficulties in tracking the experimenters’ hands during baiting. We discuss these findings in relation to the role of contextual issues on self-control when making species comparisons and investigating the mechanisms of self-control.

Associations between violence, criminality, and cognitive control deficits among young men living in low resource communities in South Africa.

Despite empirical support for "Self-control theory" in criminology, there is controversy about how self-control should be operationalized. Working within the framework of "self-control theory," we investigated if violence and criminal behaviors are associated with nine distinct dimensions of cognitive control in a community sample of young men (n = 654) living in peri-urban townships in South Africa. Cognitive control was assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Multivariate statistical analysis was used, to identify associations between violence and criminality, and deaggregated measures of nine distinct components of cognitive control. Fifteen percent of the sample reported recent violence, 27% had been in physical fights with family/friends in the preceding 6 months, 10% reported being arrested, 4% reported forced sexual contact, and 26% reported intimate partner violence (IPV). Controlling for substance use and sociodemographic variables, contact with the criminal justice system and violence were associated with deficits in all domains of cognitive control. Forced sexual contact was associated with behavioral dysregulation. IPV was associated with behavior dysregulation and executive control dysfunction. Future studies might utilize deaggregated measures of self-control to provide further insight into links between particular components of cognitive control and various forms of offending and violence.

Neural correlates of decision making related to information security: Self-control and moral potency.

Security breaches of digital information represent a significant threat to the wellbeing of individuals, corporations, and governments in the digital era. Roughly 50% of breaches of information security result from the actions of individuals inside organizations (i.e., insider threat), and some evidence indicates that common deterrence programs may not lessen the insiders’ intention to violate information security. This had led researchers to investigate contextual and individual difference variables that influence the intention to violate information security policies. The current research builds upon previous studies and explores the relationship between individual differences in self-control and moral potency and the neural correlates of decision making in the context of information security. The behavioral data revealed that individuals were sensitive to the severity of a violation of information security, and that the measures of self-control and moral potency were reliable indicators of the underlying constructs. The ERP data provided a partial replication of previous research, revealing differences in neural activity for scenarios describing security violations relative to control stimuli over the occipital, medial and lateral frontal, and central regions of the scalp. Brain-behavior analyses showed that higher moral potency was associated with a decrease in neural activity, while higher self-control was associated with an increase in neural activity; and that moral potency and self-control tended to have independent influences on neural recruitment related to considering violations of information security. These findings lead to the suggestion that enhancing moral potency and self-control could represent independent pathways to guarding against insider threat.

Self-control development in adolescence predicts love and work in adulthood.

This longitudinal study over a 23-year time span examined predictive associations between self-control development in adolescence and love and work outcomes in adulthood. Participants were 1,527 adults aged 35 years (48.3% female). The predictor variable self-control was measured yearly at the ages of 12 to 16 years. Adult outcome variables were measured at the age of 35 years. Three important results stand out. First, the measure of adolescent self-control functioned equivalently across the adolescent years. Second, adolescents showed a mean-level increase in self-control across the adolescent years and significant individual differences in level and change of self-control. Finally, individual differences in change in adolescent self-control predicted better intimate relationships in terms of higher relationship satisfaction and lower conflict; and more satisfaction and engagement in work-life in adulthood independent of the initial levels of self-control in early adolescence. These findings demonstrate that developmental self-regulatory processes reveal long-term consequences in important life domains beyond the adolescent years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Trait self-control, exercise and exercise ambition: Evidence from a healthy, adult population

ABSTRACTThis study explores if self-control predicts exercise ambition and actual exercise, and if exercise ambition predicts actual exercise. Members and guests at a not-for-profit sports club were invited to participate. 264 individuals completed a self-reported (Self-Control Scale) measure of self-control, and responded to questions about actual exercise as well as exercise ambition prior to their workout. Main Outcome Measures are exercise ambition, actual exercise, and the difference between them. We find that trait self-control predicts both actual exercise and exercise ambition. Exercise ambition also predicts actual exercise. The results suggest a path from self-control, via exercise ambition, to actual exercise. Individuals with relatively low self-control might benefit from some aid in setting goals for their workouts and committing to exercise.

Self-control and health-related behaviour: The role of implicit self-control, trait self-control, and lay beliefs in self-control.

We tested unique contribution of trait self-control, implicit self-control, and lay beliefs in self-control beliefs to the prediction of health-related behaviours. We also tested whether relations between trait self-control and health-related behaviour, and between implicit self-control and health-related behaviours, were moderated by self-control beliefs. Cross-sectional, correlational. Students (N=176) completed self-report measures of trait self-control, lay beliefs that self-control is limited or non-limited, non-planning, participation in health-related behaviours (impulsive eating, impulsive drinking, exercise avoidance, watching diet, alcohol consumption, physical activity participation), and demographic variables. Participants also completed a measure of implicit self-control using an implicit association test. Analyses indicated significant negative relations between implicit self-control and impulsive drinking and alcohol consumption. We also found a positive relationship between implicit self-control and exercise behaviour, and a negative relationship between implicit self-control and impulsive eating, both of which fell marginally short of statistical significance. Trait self-control significantly predicted all behavioural measures and attenuated relations between implicit self-control and health-related behaviour. We found no relations between lay beliefs in self-control and health-related behaviour. Moderated path analyses revealed that lay beliefs in self-control moderated relations between trait self-control and impulsive drinking, implicit self-control and exercise avoidance, and implicit self-control and physical activity participation. Findings suggest that trait self-control was a consistent correlate of health-related behaviour, while the effect sizes of relationships between implicit self-control and health-related behaviours were small. Strength of relations between trait self-control and health-related behaviours may depend on whether or not individuals believe self-control is limited. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Self-control represents individuals capacity to override impulses, break habits, and avoid temptations. Trait self-control is consistently and positively related to uptake of health-promoting behaviours (e.g., physical activity, healthy eating). Trait self-control is consistently and negatively related to health-compromising behaviours (e.g., alcohol consumption, unhealthy snacking). What does this study add? Proposes that self-control can also be measured implicitly, beyond individuals' awareness. Examined effects of implicit measures of self-control and self-reported trait self-control on multiple health behaviours. Effects of implicit self-control on health behaviours were small and subsumed by trait self-control. Effects of lay beliefs in self-control moderated effects of implicit and trait self-control on some health behaviours.

Self-control is linked to interoceptive inference: Craving regulation and the prediction of aversive interoceptive states induced with inspiratory breathing load

The interoceptive inference framework suggests that our brain continuously anticipates future states of our body and aims to avoid events that might counteract homeostasis by minimizing prediction errors through active inference; e.g. appropriate actions. If predicted interoceptive models are inaccurate, behavior inconsistent with our long-term homeostatic goals may result; e.g. in failures in self-control. Using a within-subject design including an inspiratory breathing-load task to examine the prediction of aversive interoceptive perturbation and a craving-regulation for palatable foods task, we examined the relationship between self-control and aversive interoceptive predictive models. Those individuals (n = 51 healthy individuals from the general population) who were more accurate in predicting their interoceptive state with respect to anticipated versus experienced dyspnea were significantly more effective in the down-regulation of craving using negative future-thinking strategies. These individuals also scored higher on a measure of trait self-control, i.e. self-regulation to achieve long-term goals. Thus, individuals with more accurate predictive interoceptive models are better able to modulate cravings and thus exert better self-control.