Self-control Group Research Articles

CONTROLLING ABSOLUTE FREQUENCY OF FEEDBACK IN A SELF-CONTROLLED SITUATION ENHANCES MOTOR LEARNING.

The guidance hypothesis suggested that excessive extrinsic feedback facilitates motor performance but blocks the processing of intrinsic information. The present study tested the tenet of guidance hypothesis in self-controlled feedback by controlling the feedback frequency. The motor learning effect of limiting absolute feedback frequency was examined. Thirty-six participants (25 men, 11 women; M age=25.1 yr., SD=2.2) practiced a hand-grip force control task on a dynamometer by the non-dominant hand with varying amounts of feedback. They were randomly assigned to: (a) Self-controlled, (b) Yoked with self-controlled, and (c) Limited self-controlled conditions. In acquisition, two-way analysis of variance indicated significantly lower absolute error in both the yoked and limited self-controlled groups than the self-controlled group. The effect size of absolute error between trials with feedback and without feedback in the limited self-controlled condition was larger than that of the self-controlled condition. In the retention and transfer tests, the Limited self-controlled feedback group had significantly lower absolute error than the other two groups. The results indicated an increased motor learning effect of limiting absolute frequency of feedback in the self-controlled condition.

The effects of self-control on cognitive resource allocation during sustained attention: a transcranial Doppler investigation.

Vigilance, or sustained attention, is a required ability in many operational professions. While past research has consistently indicated that vigilance performance declines over time, referred to as the vigilance decrement, the theoretical mechanisms underlying the decrement continue to be explored. In the current study, trait self-control was examined to determine how this individual differences measure may contribute to the theoretical explanation of vigilance decrement. Transcranial Doppler sonography (TCD) was used as a measure of cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV), as previous research has indicated that CBFV may index attentional resource allocation during vigilance (e.g., Shaw et al. in Hum Factors Ergon Soc 50:1619-1623, 2009). Participants performed a demanding 12-min computer-based vigilance task. Prior to the task, a validated self-report measure was used to determine trait-level self-control, and subjective workload was measured after the task was completed. Participants were divided, based upon survey responses, as either low- or high-trait self-control. Performance results showed a significant decrement across participants, but no significant main effect or interaction relating to the self-control measure was observed. Results relating to the TCD measure showed a significant decline in CBFV in the low self-control group, but no CBFV decrement was observed in the high self-control group. The subjective workload results revealed a nonsignificant trend of the low self-control group becoming more frustrated after the task. These results suggest that there are differences in the resource allocation strategies between low and high self-control participants. How trait self-control can add to an understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of sustained attention performance is discussed.

Examining the Preferred Self-Controlled KR Schedules of Learners and Peers During Motor Skill Learning

ABSTRACTIn many practical situations, learners are provided with feedback in the form of knowledge of results (KR) by a peer. However, when peers provide KR is currently unknown. When given the opportunity to request KR in a self-controlled manner, some participants have reported a preference for requesting KR after good performances. Alternatively, peers may provide KR in a different fashion. Subsequently, a discrepancy between the learner's desire to receive KR and when a peer provides KR may arise. In our study, peer- and self-controlled KR schedules were compared. Participants were peers who controlled KR (PC; 8), learners with peers (P-L; 8), or learners with self-control (SC; 8). Participants in the two learning groups (P-L and SC groups) completed a serial-timing task with a goal time of 2500 ms. Absolute error data on KR and no-KR trials along with self-reports indicate that participants with self-control preferred KR after good trials and peers preferred to provide KR after both good and bad trials equally. Results from the delayed retention test indicated that peer-controlled learners were more consistent (i.e., in terms of variable error) than the self-control group.

Self-controlled practice benefits motor learning in older adults

Providing learners with the chance to choose over certain aspects of practice has been consistently shown to facilitate the acquisition of motor skills in several populations. However, studies investigating the effects of providing autonomy support during the learning process of older adults remain scarce. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of self-controlled amount of practice on the learning of a sequential motor task in older adults. Participants in the self-control group were able to choose when to stop practicing a speed cup stacking task, while the number of practice trials for a yoked group was pre-determined, mirroring the self-control group. The opportunity to choose when stop practicing facilitated motor performance and learning compared to the yoked condition. The findings suggest that letting older adult learners choose the amount of practice, supporting their autonomy needs, has a positive influence on motor learning.

Assessment of Exploratory Activity and Anxiety in Rats with Different Levels of Impulsive Behavior

Selection of a pedal to obtain reinforcement depending on its value and delay time was used to divide rats into three groups. Animals selecting the valuable but delayed reinforcement in more than 70% of cases were assigned to the self-controlled groups, while those making this choice in fewer than 30% of case were assigned to the impulsive group and rats showing no preference in choosing reinforcement were members of the ambivalent group. The levels of orientational-exploratory activity and anxiety in rats with different types of behavior were then assessed in an elevated plus maze, on acquisition of a conditioned fear reaction (fear conditioning), and in a neophagophobia test (novelty suppressed feeding). The animals which were least active and most anxious in all tests were those of the self-controlled group. Ambivalent rats were the least anxious in the elevated plus maze test and produced the greatest number of successful trials in terms of finding and eating food in the novel context, as compared with rats of the other groups. Impulsive animals demonstrated more marked freezing reactions on acquisition of the conditioned fear reaction in the fear conditioning test and found food more quickly in the novel context.

When the going gets tough...: Self-motivation is associated with invigoration and fun.

Personality systems interaction (PSI) theory postulates two executive control modes in volitional action: Self-control and self-regulation (self-motivation). Self-control should deplete energy whereas self-motivation should maintain energy and result in invigoration. There were three groups of participants: Self-control, self-motivation, and pretend, who performed a resource-demanding Stroop-Shift and an anagram task. Performance and energy expenditure were examined in each task. Compared to the other groups, the self-motivation group showed increments in blood glucose throughout the experiment, indicating invigoration, and had better performance on the difficult Stroop-Shift task than the self-control group. Additionally, for the self-motivation group anagram performance correlated with less effort and ease of concentration and was moderated by fun in the task. These results are consonant with the predictions of PSI and self-determination theories. It is concluded that self-control depletes resources whereas self-motivation is associated with invigoration in carrying resource-demanding tasks.

Self-controlled feedback is effective if it is based on the learner's performance: a replication and extension of Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005).

The learning advantages of self-controlled feedback schedules compared to yoked schedules have been attributed to motivational influences and/or information processing activities with many researchers adopting the motivational perspective in recent years. Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005) found that feedback decisions made before (Self-Before) or after a trial (Self-After) resulted in similar retention performance, but superior transfer performance resulted when the decision to receive feedback occurred after a trial. They suggested that the superior skill transfer of the Self-After group likely emerged from information processing activities such as error estimation. However, the lack of yoked groups and a measure of error estimation in their experimental design prevents conclusions being made regarding the underlying mechanisms of why self-controlled feedback schedules optimize learning. Here, we revisited Chiviacowsky and Wulf’s (2005) design to investigate the learning benefits of self-controlled feedback schedules. We replicated their Self-Before and Self-After groups, but added a Self-Both group that was able to request feedback before a trial, but could then change or stay with their original choice after the trial. Importantly, yoked groups were included for the three self-controlled groups to address the previously stated methodological limitation and error estimations were included to examine whether self-controlling feedback facilitates a more accurate error detection and correction mechanism. The Self-After and Self-Before groups demonstrated similar accuracy in physical performance and error estimation scores in retention and transfer, and both groups were significantly more accurate than the Self-Before group and their respective Yoked groups (p’s < 0.05). Further, the Self-Before group was not significantly different from their yoked counterparts (p’s > 0.05). We suggest these findings further indicate that informational factors associated with the processing of feedback for the development of one’s error detection and correction mechanism, rather than motivational processes are more critical for why self-controlled feedback schedules optimize motor learning.

Effects of self-control and instructor-control feedback on motor learning in individuals with cerebral palsy

In this study we investigated the effects of "self-control and instructor-control feedback" on motor learning in individuals with cerebral palsy (CP). For this reason 22 boy students with CP type I (12.26±3.11 years of age) were chosen. They were put into self-control feedback, instructor-control feedback and control groups. All participants practiced dart throwing skill for 5 sessions (4 blocks of 5 trails each session). The self-control group received knowledge of results (KR) feedback for half of their trials whenever they wanted. The instructor-control group received KR feedback after half of both their good and bad trails. The control group received no feedback for any trails. The acquisition test was run immediately at the end of each practice session (the last block) and the retention and transfer tests were run 24h following the acquisition phase. Analyses of variance with repeated measures and Post hoc tests were used to analyze the data. According to the results of this study, individuals with CP have the ability of acquiring and retaining a new motor skill. Also, it was found that self-control feedback is effective than instructor-control feedback on learning of a motor task in individuals with CP as in the average population. These findings show that rules regarding feedback also apply to people afflicted with CP.

Self-controlled practice: Autonomy protects perceptions of competence and enhances motor learning

ObjectiveIn previous self-controlled feedback studies, it was observed that participants who could control their own feedback schedules usually use a strategy of choosing feedback after successful trials, and present superior motor learning when compared with participants who were not allowed to choose. Yoked participants of these studies, however, were thwarted not only regarding autonomy but also, presumably, regarding perceived competence, as their feedback schedules were provided randomly, regarding good or bad trials. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether self-controlled feedback schedules would have differential effects on learning if yoked participants are provided with feedback after good trials at the same rate as their self-controlled counterparts. DesignExperimental study with two groups. Timing accuracy was assessed in two different experimental phases, supplemented by questionnaire data. MethodParticipants practiced a coincident-anticipation timing task with a self-controlled or yoked feedback schedule during practice. Participants of the self-controlled group were able to ask for feedback for two trials, after each of five 6-trial practice blocks. Yoked participants received a feedback schedule matching the self-control group schedule, according to accuracy. ResultsParticipants asked for (self-controlled group) and received (yoked group) feedback, mainly after relatively good trials. However, participants of the self-controlled group reported greater self-efficacy at the end of practice, and performed with greater accuracy one day later, on the retention test, than the yoked group. ConclusionsThe findings indicate that the autonomy provided by self-controlled feedback protocols can raise learners' perceptions of competence, with positive consequences on motor learning.

Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor Administration for Infertile Women With Thin Endometrium in Frozen Embryo Transfer Program

We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) administration for infertile women with thin endometrium in frozen embryo transfer program. Among 59 infertile patients with thin endometrium (≤7 mm), 34 patients received uterine infusion of recombinant human G-CSF (100 μg/0.6 mL) on the day of ovulation or administration of progesterone or human chorionic gonadotropin, with 40 cycles defined as G-CSF group and 49 previous cycles as self-controlled group, and 25 patients refused, with 80 cycles defined as the control group. Higher proportion of induced cycles and lower proportion of natural cycles were observed in the G-CSF group, when compared to the self-controlled group or control group (P < .05). The cycle cancellation rate was, in descending order, 69.39% in self-controlled group, 48.75% in control group, and 17.50% in G-CSF group, with significant difference (P < .05). The implantation rate and clinical pregnancy rate per embryo transfer were similar in all the groups (P > .05). Our study fails to demonstrate that G-CSF has the potential to improve embryo implantation and clinical pregnancy rate of the infertile women with thin endometrium.

Self-Controlled Practice Within a Fixed Time Period Facilitates the Learning of a Basketball Set Shot

Allowing self-control over various modes of instructional support has been shown to facilitate motor learning. Most research has examined factors that directly altered task-relevant information on a trial-to-trial basis (e.g., feedback). Recent research suggests that self-control (SC) effects extend to the manipulation of other types of factors (e.g., total number of practice trials completed). This research also illustrated that learners sometimes select a very small amount of practice when given latitude to do so. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of SC practice within a fixed time period on the learning of a basketball set shot. SC participants chose when to attempt each shot within two 15-min practice sessions, thereby controlling both the total number of shots taken and the spacing of shots. Yoked participants completed the same number of shots as their SC counterparts. Spacing of shots was also matched across groups. The SC group was more accurate and had higher form scores and longer preshot times during retention. These findings provided additional support for the generalizability of SC effects and extended prior research, showing that autonomy over total practice duration was not a prerequisite for the observed effects.

Yoked Versus Self-Controlled Practice Schedules and Performance on Dual-Task Transfer Tests

The authors examined yoked versus self-controlled practice schedules to determine their influence in immediate and delayed dual-task performance. The task was to propel a small disc along a smooth table top, with the purpose of stopping it in a specified target area. Participants in the self-controlled schedule group chose the order in which eight acquisition targets, differing in distance from a home position, were practiced during acquisition. Members of a control group followed identical schedules to yoked participants in the self-controlled group. The authors hypothesized that those in the self-controlled group would perform with less error on retention and transfer tests and with more error on dual-task transfer tests in comparison to those in the yoked group. No differences in performance on retention, transfer, or dual-task tests were found. Possible reasons for the similar performance between groups include the provision of choice over blocks of rather than individual trials and feelings of autonomy in both groups due to choice as to how to propel the disc.

Efeitos do "feedback" autocontrolado na aprendizagem do lançamento da bola da ginástica rítmica

O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar os efeitos da frequência autocontrolada de "feedback" na aprendizagem do lançamento da bola da ginástica rítmica. A amostra foi constituída de 24 crianças, de sete a 10 anos de idade, distribuídas em dois grupos em relação aos diferentes tipos de condições de "feedback": autocontrolado e externamente controlado. O estudo foi composto de uma fase de prática e um teste de retenção. Os resultados de um questionário revelaram que a maioria dos participantes do grupo autocontrolado solicitou "feedback" principalmente após as boas tentativas de prática, enquanto os participantes do grupo "yoked" indicaram ter recebido "feedback" nas tentativas em que o desejavam. Nenhuma diferença foi encontrada em relação ao desempenho ou aprendizagem. Conclui-se que a frequência autocontrolada de "feedback" é tão eficiente quanto a frequência externamente controlada na aprendizagem da habilidade motora específica lançamento do aparelho bola em crianças desta faixa etária.

Selection for Some, Facilitation for Others? Self-Control Theory and the Gang–Violence Relationship

Although self-control theory has been thought to be entirely consistent with the gang selection model, key theoretical predictions of the general theory imply gang selection effects for those with lower self-control and gang facilitation effects for those with higher self-control. This new hypothesis is tested among a large sample of jail inmates. Results indicate that self-control did not render the gang–violence relationship spurious for the sample as a whole. Gang membership had a significantly greater impact on violent crime among those with very high self-control, but there were still statistically significant gang facilitation effects for the other three self-control groups.

Effects of self-controlled feedback on learning of a throwing task in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of self-controlled feedback on learning a throwing task in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy (SHCP). In order to achieve the research objectives, using a semi-experimental method, 20 children with SHCP (7-12 years old) were selected from special schools in Tehran, Iran. After showing the participants how to do the throwing task, a pre-test with 10 trials was conducted to homogenize the participants. Then, they were randomly assigned to two groups (self-control group and yoked group) to be examined in acquisition, retention, and transfer phases. Children in self-control group requested feedback when necessary during the acquisition phase. In contrast, participants in yoked-group replicated the feedback schedules of their counterparts in self-control group without any choice. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed to analyze the data. Based on the results, a significant difference was not found between the self-control and yoked-group in acquisition phase (F=.538, p<.473). However, there was a significant difference between the two groups in retention (F=11.72, p<.003) and transfer (F=6.74, p<.018) phases. Thus, based on the better results obtained in the self-control condition, this type of feedback can be used in physiotherapy programs related to children with CP to improve their motor skills and independence movements.

게임이용자의 자기통제와 해석수준이 게임중독에 미치는 영향

게임중독은 자기통제 상실의 현대적 지표로서 동료관계 및 교우관계와 같은 사회적 관계맺음을 포함한 개인의 일상 전반에 부정적인 영향을 미치고 있다. 본 연구에서는 게임이용자들의 자기통제수준과 해석수준에 따라 게임중독수준의 차이를 살펴보았으며, 또한 자기통제수준과 해석수준의 상호작용이 게임중독에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지를 함께 탐색해보았다. 이를 위해, 게임이용자를 대상으로 온라인 서베이를 실시하였고, 총 918의 응답자를 분석대상으로 선정하였다. 연구결과, 낮은 자기통제수준과 낮은 해석수준을 가진 이용자들의 경우, 상대적으로 높은 자기통제수준 및 높은 해석수준을 가지는 경우에 비해, 더욱 높은 수준의 게임중독을 나타냈다. 또한 자기통제수준이 높을 경우에는 해석수준에 관계없이 게임중독수준이 낮았으나, 자기통제수준이 낮은 경우, 해석수준이 높고 낮음에 따라 게임중독에 미치는 영향일 달라짐을 확인할 수 있었다. 이는 해석수준이 하나의 조절변수로 기능하고 있음을 알려주는 결과로, 이러한 결과를 통해 개인의 자기통제와 해석수준의 변화를 통해 자율적인 규제를 통한 게임중독완화의 가능성을 논의해 볼 수 있다.

Enhancing of Motor Learning through Self-Controlled Observational Learning and Feedback

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of self-controlled observational learning and knowledge of performance (KP) feedback on motor performance and learning in adolescents. Thirty-two male adolescent participants were randomly assigned to self-controlled video modeling and KP feedback group or without self-controlled yoked group. Dependent variable was the score of the forehand backspin serve of table tennis. The experimental process consisted of four phases: homogeneousness test, 300 trials for acquisition phase, 10 minutes immediate retention and transfer test, and after 3 days delayed retention and transfer tests. The interaction of group × block was found statistical significance during acquisition phase. The interactions of group × test were not found statistical significance in immediate and delayed retention tests. However, the main effects of group and test were found statistical significance. The score of immediate retention test was higher than delayed retention test, and the score of self-controlled video modeling and KP feedback group was higher than without self-controlled yoked group. The interactions of group × test were not found statistical significance in immediate and delayed transfer tests. But the main effects of group and test were found statistical significance. The score of immediate transfer test was higher than delayed transfer test, and the score of self-controlled video modeling and KP feedback group was higher than without self-controlled yoked group. It was concluded that adolescents in self-controlled observational learning and KP feedback group were better than without self-controlled yoked group on motor performance and learning of forehand backspin serve of table tennis skill.

Motivational conditions influence tongue motor performance

Motivation plays an important role in the outcome of motor learning but has not received attention in tongue-training-induced plasticity of the corticomotor pathways. The present study investigated the influence of two different motivational conditions and gender on performance during a complex tongue-training paradigm using the tongue drive system (TDS). In addition, subject-based reports of motivation, fun, pain, and fatigue were compared between groups and genders. Sixteen subjects were randomized into three groups and were asked to use the TDS for 40 min. A motivational condition (monetary reward or self-controlled practice) was introduced in two groups and the third group served as the control. The subjects were instructed to play a computer game using the TDS, having control of the computer cursor through a magnet attached to the tongue, and performance was compared among groups. Performance improved in all groups and in both genders. The monetary reward group tended towards higher performance scores compared with the control group, whereas the self-controlled practice group performed significantly better compared with the control group. There was no significant difference between groups and genders in the subject-based report for level of motivation, fun, pain, or fatigue. In conclusion, introduction of motivational conditions influenced tongue motor performance.

Altered TGF-β2 and bFGF expression in scleral desmocytes from an experimentally-induced myopia guinea pig model

To determine changes in expression of transforming growth factor β-2 (TGF-β2) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in scleral desmocytes from anterior and posterior portions of experimentally-induced myopic eyes of guinea pigs. Three groups (n = 10) of 2-week-old guinea pigs were used to develop concave lens-induced myopia (LIM) in one eye via the out-of-focus method for 6, 15, or 30 days respectively, while the other eye in each guinea pig served as the self-control (SC). After myopia induction, lenses were removed, and scleral fibroblasts were cultured and passaged twice. TGF-β2 and bFGF expression levels of scleral desmocytes in LIM and SC groups were compared by immunocytochemistry, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blot analyses. The TGF-β2 expression of the anterior portion of the sclera in the LIM group was significantly higher at 15 days, and at its highest at 30 days after myopia induction compared with the SC group (P < 0.05). The TGF-β2 staining of the posterior sclera in the LIM group began to rise significantly at 6 days, peaked at 15 days and remained significantly higher than that of the anterior part, as well as the SC group, even at 30 days after myopia induction (P < 0.05). BFGF levels in scleral desmocytes from the anterior and posterior regions in the LIM group were both significantly lower than those of the SC group at all time points after myopia induction (P < 0.05). Furthermore, as the myopia progressed, bFGF expression in the anterior and posterior sclera in the LIM group gradually and statistically significantly decreased compared with the SC group (P < 0.05); however, no significant differences were observed between the anterior and posterior parts in the LIM group at any time after myopia induction (P > 0.05). All these results were consistent at the mRNA and protein levels. During myopia development in lens-induced guinea pigs, the increase in TGF-β2 activity of scleral desmocytes initiated at the posterior pole. Along with the induction time, the TGF-β2 activity in all scleral desmocytes became elevated. By contrast, the bFGF activity showed a general decline in all scleral desmocytes, rather than mainly in the posterior pole. These results imply that expression of TGF-β2 in scleral desmocytes plays a direct role, while that of bFGF exerts an indirect role in myopia development.

Effects of Blockade of D1/D2 Dopamine Receptors on the Behavior of Rats with Different Levels of Impulsivity and Self-Control

Rats classified on the basis of preliminary experiments into “self-controlled” and “impulsive” groups were given selective D1/D2 dopamine receptor blockers (SCH 23390 and raclopride respectively). The concepts of impulsivity and self-control relate to preferences in the choice between a more valuable but timedelayed reinforcement and a less valuable but immediate reinforcement. The effects of administration of these agents on the selection of reinforcements of different value were studied: the greater time-delayed reinforcement or the smaller immediate reinforcement. The numbers of refusals to make a choice and the latent periods of responses were also measured. D1/D2 receptor blockers had different actions in the different groups of animals. In rats of the self-controlled group, both blockers produced statistically significant (p < 0.05) increases in the number presses on the pedal delivering the less valuable but immediate reinforcement, providing evidence of an increase in impulsivity. In impulsive animals, the behavioral strategy underwent virtually no change. Administration of SCH 23390 increased the number of missed presses in both groups, this being particularly marked in self-controlled animals. Raclopride also increased the number of missed reactions in self-controlled rats, though this action was seen only one day after administration. Administration of the dopamine blockers used here led to increases in the latent periods of responses, but only in impulsive animals.