Self-comforting Behaviors Research Articles

Theory of Mind in Pre-school Aged Children: Influence of Maternal Depression and Infants' Self-Comforting Behavior.

A milestone of child development is theory of mind (ToM): the ability to attribute mental states, especially beliefs and desires, to other persons and to understand that their behavior is guided by mental states. The learning process about the mental world also takes place in social communication and interaction, beginning in infancy. Infancy is assumed to be a sensitive period for the development of social skills through interaction. Due to limited self-regulatory skills, infants depend on sensitive behavior of their caregivers to regulate affective states and physiological arousal, and in turn, mutually regulated affects allow the infant to gradually acquire the capability to self-regulate negative affective states. Effective and adequate affect regulation is an important prerequisite for environmental interaction and thus for the development of socio-emotional skills. The present study investigated the relation of self-regulatory abilities in infancy and later ToM in pre-school aged children of clinically depressed mothers and healthy controls. The sample comprised of N = 55 mother–child dyads, n = 22 diagnosed with postpartum or lifetime depression according to DSM-IV and n = 33 healthy controls. Mother–infant-interaction was videotaped during the Face-to-Face Still-Face paradigm. At 3 and 42 months postpartum mothers were interviewed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I) to evaluate maternal psychopathological status according to DSM-IV. At the age of M = 4.0 years, children’s ToM abilities were assessed using content-false-belief and location-false-belief tasks. The results of this study show that contrary to our hypotheses, maternal depression did not impair the development of children’s ToM-abilities per se. Rather, an interaction effect highlights the role of infant’s self-comforting behavior during mother–infant interaction in infancy (3 months postpartum) for ToM-development at pre-school age assessed with the Maxi-task; this association was distinct for female in comparison to male children. The results of this longitudinal study shed light on the discussion, how maternal depression influences child development and point in the direction that self-comforting behaviors in infancy can also be seen as a resource.

Patterns of regulatory behavior in the still-face paradigm at 3 months: A comparison of Brazilian and Portuguese infants.

Three infant regulatory behavior patterns have been identified during the Face-to-Face Still-Face paradigm (FFSF) in prior research samples: a Social-Positive Oriented pattern (i.e., infants exhibit predominantly positive social engagement), a Distressed-Inconsolable pattern (i.e., infants display conspicuous negative affect that persists or increases across FFSF episodes), and a Self-Comfort Oriented pattern (e.g., infants primarily engage in self-comforting behaviors such as thumb-sucking). However, few studies have examined these patterns outside US and European countries or evaluated potential cross-country differences in these patterns. In this study, we compared the regulatory behavior patterns of 74 Brazilian and 124 Portuguese infants in the FFSF at 3 months of age, and evaluated their links to demographic and birth variables. The prevalence of the three regulatory patterns varied by country. The most frequent pattern in the Portuguese sample was the Social-Positive Oriented, followed by the Distressed-Inconsolable and the Self-Comfort Oriented. However, in the Brazilian sample, the Distressed-Inconsolable pattern was the most prevalent, followed by the Social-Positive Oriented and the Self-Comfort Oriented. Moreover, in the Brazilian sample, familial SES was higher among infants with a Social-Positive pattern whereas 1st-minute Apgar scores were lower among Portuguese infants with a Distressed-Inconsolable Oriented pattern of regulatory behavior. In each sample, Social Positive pattern of regulatory behavior was associated with maternal sensitivity, Self-Comfort Oriented pattern of regulatory behavior with maternal control, and Distressed-Inconsolable pattern with maternal unresponsivity.

The terrible twos: How children cope with frustration and tantrums and the effect of maternal and paternal behaviors

Experimental Frustration Procedures with 158 children (15-39months) of two-parent families were conducted, with each parent separately involved. We examined diverse characteristics of children's frustration and focused on specific behaviors of how children coped and parents supported them. In addition, external observers measured child attachment security (via Attachment Q Sort) toward the mother and the father during two home visits. Children with high attachment security became frustrated later and for a shorter time, and fathers, as compared to mothers, relieved these frustration patterns and reduced them. Although 22.2% children exhibited intense frustration responses up to tantrums, levels remained unaffected by child gender, but decreased with child age. Time-lag analyses revealed that children's self-comforting behaviors reduced frustration responses only by around 20%, but self-distracting (in younger children) and pretend-playing (in older children) by around 50% and 70%. Of the parent behaviors, demonstrating reduced children's frustration by up to 40% whereas distracting and reframing by around 60% (mothers) and 80% (fathers). In general, mothers tended to protect the child from distress, whereas fathers assisted the child in coping with frustration. However, if mothers soothed and fathers encouraged, children's frustration intensified.

Preterm-infant emotion regulation during the still-face interaction

Very-preterm (VPT), moderately-preterm (MPT), and full-term (FT) infants’ emotion-regulation behaviors were assessed via the Still-Face procedure at a corrected age of four months. As a developmental task during the first year of life, emotion regulation is important for social and cognitive development. Although substantial evidence indicates that VPT infants exhibit emotion-regulation difficulties, little is known about MPT infants' emotion regulation capabilities, this group also possibly being at risk. The participants included 135 parent-infant dyads: 46 VPT (gestational age 24–32 weeks), 51 MPT (gestational age 32–34 weeks), and 38 FT (gestational age 37–41 weeks). The infants’ affect, gaze-aversion, and self-comforting behaviors were coded. Preterm infants responded to parental still face in similar fashion to FT infants, displaying robust still-face and recovery effects. The preterm infants exhibited less developed emotion-regulation behaviors, however, manifested in less positive affect and more gaze aversion in the face-to-face and reunion episodes compared to FT infants. With respect to self-comforting behaviors, each group displayed a significantly different pattern of behaviors throughout the procedure, suggesting better emotion regulation skills among MPT infants compared to the VPT infants. The findings on gaze aversion and self-comforting behaviors could have implications for strategies to incorporate into intervention programs supporting development of emotion regulation skills.

What Dyadic Reparation Is Meant to Do: An Association with Infant Cortisol Reactivity

Background: The latency to reparation of interactive mismatches (interactive repair) is argued to regulate infant distress on a psychobiological level, and maternal anxiety disorders might impair infant regulation. Sampling and Methods: A total of 46 dyads (19 mothers with an anxiety disorder, 27 controls) were analyzed for associations between interactive repair and infant cortisol reactivity during the Face-to-Face-Still-Face paradigm 3-4 months postpartum. Missing cortisol values (n = 16) were imputed. Analyses were conducted on both the original and the pooled imputed data. Results: Interactive repair during the reunion episode was associated with infant cortisol reactivity (original data: p < 0.01; pooled data: p < 0.01) but not maternal anxiety disorder (p > 0.23). Additional stepwise regression analyses found that latency to repair during play (p < 0.01), an interaction between distress during the first trimester of pregnancy and latency to repair during reunion (p < 0.01) and infant self-comforting behaviors during the reunion episode (p = 0.04) made independent contributions to cortisol reactivity in the final regression model. Conclusions: This is the first study demonstrating that interactive repair is related to infant psychobiological stress reactivity. The lack of a relation to maternal anxiety disorder may be due to the small sample size. However, this result emphasizes that infants respond to what they experience and not to the maternal diagnostic category.

Trajectories of regulatory behaviors in early infancy: Determinants of infant self-distraction and self-comforting.

The ability to effectively regulate emotions is an important marker for early socioemotional development. The uses of self-comforting behaviors and self-distraction have been empirically supported as effective regulatory strategies for infants, though research on determinants of such behaviors is scarce. Thus, a more thorough examination of the development of regulatory behaviors is needed. For the current study, 135 mothers, fathers, and their infants participated in laboratory visits at 3-, 5-, and 7-months of age where parent sensitivity and infant regulatory strategies were coded from the Still Face Paradigm. Parents also filled out questionnaires about infant temperament and parental involvement. Using multi-level modeling to examine levels and trajectories of self-comforting and self-distraction, the current study found: 1) infants higher in temperamental surgency used more self-distraction and self-comforting, 2) infants lower in surgency with highly involved parents increased in self-distraction at a faster rate, particularly with highly involved fathers, and 3) infants used self-comforting more than average with fathers when the infant was also lower in temperamental regulation. In addition, we examined trajectories of parent involvement and temperament in relation to infant regulatory strategy.

Maternal prenatal stress and infant regulatory capacity in Mexican Americans

The early postpartum period lays important groundwork for later self-regulation as infants’ dispositional traits interact with caregivers’ co-regulatory behaviors to produce the earliest forms of self-regulation. Although emerging literature suggests that fetal exposure to maternal stress may be integral in determining child self-regulatory capacity, the complex pathways that characterize these early developmental processes remain unclear. The current study considers these complex, transactional processes in a low income, Mexican American sample. Data were collected from 295 Mexican American infants and their mothers during prenatal, 6- and 12-week postpartum home interviews. Mother reports of stress were obtained prenatally, and mother reports of infant temperament were obtained at 6 weeks. Observer ratings of maternal sensitivity and infant regulatory behaviors were obtained at the 6- and 12-week time points. Study results indicate that prenatal stress predicts higher levels of infant negativity and surgency, both of which directly or interactively predict later engagement in regulatory behaviors. Unexpectedly, prenatal stress also predicted more engagement in orienting, but not self-comforting behaviors. Advancing understandings about the nature of these developmental pathways may have significant implications for targets of early intervention in this high risk population.

Comparing emotional reactivity and regulation in infants born ELGA and VLGA

Emotional reactivity and regulation behaviors were compared in infants born extremely low gestational age (ELGA) and very low gestational age (VLGA) during the still-face procedure. Infants born ELGA demonstrated greater emotional reactivity and displayed less frequent gaze avoidance, more frequent gestures, and more self-comforting behaviors.

The regulation of negative reactivity in infancy: Function and development.

This study examined the function and effectiveness of certain behaviors in regulating negative arousal in 5- and 10-month-old infants. Infants participated in an arm restraint procedure at 5 months (N=87) and a toy removal task at 10 months (N=82). Negative reactivity and regulatory behaviors ― avoidance, orienting, self-comforting, and communicative behaviors (10-month only) ― were coded and sectioned into 10-s epochs. Results showed that self-comforting behaviors were preferred at both 5 and 10 months of age. A comparison of changes in negative reactivity across every 2 consecutive 10-s epochs (decreasers vs. increasers vs. no change) revealed self-conforting behaviors to be exhibited most often during periods of decreasing negative arousal. Orienting behaviors also appeared to serve a regulatory function but in a more limited way. Finally, under these circumstances, avoidance and communicative behaviors were exhibited most often during increasing distress

Face-to-face interactions between hearing mothers and their deaf or hearing infants

This research was part of a longitudinal study investigating the impact of early deafness on the cognitive, social, and communicative development of deaf infants with normally hearing mothers in the first 18 months of the child's life. The study examines the patterns of face-to-face interaction between deaf and hearing 9-month-old infants and their hearing mothers, to determine which infant behaviors are most affected by lack of access to the auditory channel of communication. On particular interest was the infants' response to an age-appropriate stressor, the “still-face” situation. which was introduced between two interaction episodes. Although mothers of deaf infants appeared to compensate by increasing their reliance on visual interaction strategies, the deaf infants used fewer overt signaling behaviors such as smiling, greeting, or reaching toward the mother and resorted more readily to self-comforting behaviors than did the hearing infants. However, the deaf infants also engaged in higher levels of repetitious motor activity, which could be interpreted by the partner as another form of eliciting behavior, albeit one that is not typically coded as such.

Regulation of negative reactivity during the strange situation: Temperament and attachment in 12-month-old infants

The purpose of the present study was to examine 12-month-olds' regulatory behaviors displayed during the Strange Situation and the extent to which those behaviors were related to infants' negative reactivity and attachment classification. Subjects included 80 healthy firstborn infants and their mothers. Negative affect and four regulatory categories (people orientation, object orientation, self-comforting behaviors, and toy exploration) were measured during the Strange Situation. Correlational analyses revealed that infants who were overtly upset oriented less toward people, more toward objects, and engaged in less toy exploration. Analyses of variance yielded significant differences for attachment groups (A, B1–B2, B3–B4, and C) in reactivity and regulation. The B1–B2 secure subgroup showed low levels of distress and low levels of regulation. Conversely, the B3–B4 secure subgroup displayed high levels of negative affect and high levels of regulatory behaviors during separation and reunion episodes (e.g., people and object orientation). Infants classified as insecure-avoidant displayed moderate amounts of distress, contrary to expectations, and exhibited self-directed types of regulation (e.g., self-comforting and toy exploration). Finally, insecure-resistant infants expressed intense levels of negative reactivity, exhibited some regulatory behaviors during separation, but little regulation during reunion.

Neonatal stress and coping in intensive care

Examples are given of research on (a) stressful procedures and assessments in the neonatal intensive care nursery and (b) natural caregiving stimulation and self-comforting behaviors that alleviate these stressful experiences. The data from the studies on stressful procedures and assessments revealed that (a) weaning from mechanical ventilation was associated with increased plasma cortisol levels; (b) heelsticks and tube insertions for gavage feedings were accompanied by decreases in oxygen tension (TcPO2); and (c) Brazelton neonatal behavior assessments were followed by increased cortisol levels and decreased growth hormone levels. To alleviate stress, various interventions were tried including caregiver comforting techniques and giving the neonates opportunities to comfort themselves by sucking on pacifiers. The caregiver intervention studies revealed that (a) a simple placement of hands on the head and abdomen of the NICU neonate resulted in a lesser need for oxygen and (b) massaging the NICU neonate resulted in greater weight gain and earlier discharge. In those studies that explored the infant's self-comforting, nonnutritive sucking behavior, the following results emerged: (a) sucking on pacifiers during heelsticks resulted in less crying and lower heart rate and respiration and (b) sucking on pacifiers during tube feedings resulted in smoother bottle feedings later and in greater weight gain. Thus, it appears that several forms of cost-effective interventions can alleviate these stressful procedures and facilitate infant growth and development.